\ 


rom 


THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 

SANTA  BARBARA 

COLLEGE 

PRESENTED  BY 

William  E.  Roterts 


>U  OvuodL  A...-^' ^  ^-^^^^-^^^^ 


\,A^>^ 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2007  with  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/artinindustryOOrichiala 


ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

By  CHARLES  R.  RICHARDS 


BEING  THE  REPORT  OF 

AN  INDUSTRIAL  ART  SURVEY 

CONDUCTED  UNDER  THE  AUSPICES  OF 

THE  NATIONAL  SOCIETY 
FOR  VOCATIONAL  EDUCATION 

AND  THE 

DEPARTMENT  OF  EDUCATION 
OF  THE  STATE  OF  NEW  YORK 

New  York 

THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 


COPYRIGHT,  1922 
BY  CHARLES  R,  RICHARDS 


S^0 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 
SANTA  BARBARA  COLLEGE  LIBRARY 

69113 

PREFACE 


HE  olject  of  the  survey  embodied  in  the 
following  report  is  to  ascertain  as  ac- 
curately as  possible  the  situation  ex- 
isting in  American  art  industries  as 
to  standards  of  design  and  the  condi- 
tions that  at  present  operate  to  limit 
these  standards.  The  report  is  based 
on  no  theory  or  traditional  point  of  view,  but  has  sought 
to  be  thoroughly  objective  in  its  attitude  and  methods. 
The  survey  has  been  an  essentially  cooperative  enterprise^ 
involving  the  assistance  of  eighty-eight  individuals  who 
served  on  trade  and  school  committees^  as  well  as  many 
others  prominent  in  the  art  industries.  It  represents  a  study 
of  five  hundred  and  ten  producing  establishments  located 
in  fifty -five  different  cities^  as  well  as  of  fifty -five  schools 
giving  instruction  in  industrial  art. 
The  aim  is  to  present  a  picture  of  actual  conditions  relating 
to  the  practice  of  applied  design  in  the  United  States^  to  the 
end  that  clearer  thought  may  be  brought  to  bear  upon  the 
situation  and  that  intelligent  measures  for  its  improvement 
may  be  developed. 

In  the  make-up  of  the  report  the  more  definite  and  concrete 
recommendations  will  be  found  in  the  summaries  at  the 
end  of  each  of  the  trade  surveys  and  in  the  school  study. 
The  final  conclusions  deal  with  the  larger  elements  of  the 
problem. 

It  may  be  felt  that  in  recommendations  and  in  descriptive 
matter y  undue  consideration  has  been  given  to  New  York 
City.  The  attention  given  to  this  city  is  partly  due  to  the 


fact  that  New  York  represents  the  great  center  of  industrial 
design  in  the  United  States^  and  -partly  because  of  the 
necessity^  when  presenting  specific  recommendations^  of 
basing  these  on  local  conditions.  It  is  not  the  intention  to 
suggest  that  these  recommendations  are  limited  to  New 
York  City^  but  rather  to  put  forth  typical  propositions 
that  might  be  developed  in  modified  form  for  other  localities. 
In  describing  agencies  outside  of  schools  and  commercial 
practice  that  are  operating  to  advance  the  situation^  par- 
ticular reference  has  also  been  made  to  New  York  City, 
although  it  is  probable  that  somewhat  similar  organizations 
and  activities  are  to  be  found  in  other  cities. 


CONTENTS 

Preface 

Foreword i 

Trade  Studies 9 

Costumes 11 

Custom  Dressmaking — Model  Making 12 

Wholesale  Dressmaking 19 

Blouses 24 

Cloaks  and  Suits — ^Wholesale 29 

Retail  Millinery 25 

Wholesale  MiUinery 41 

Textiles 47 

Printed  Silks 49 

Printed  Cottons 61 

Cretonnes 66 

Provisions  for  Training  Designers  for  Printed  Silks, 

Cottons  and  Cretonnes 71 

Woven  Pattern  Silks 76 

Wool  and  Cotton  Tapestries 82 

Figured  Pile  Fabrics 89 

Carpets  and  Rugs 94 

Embroideries  and  Laces loi 

Woolens .  108 

Fine  Jewelry 113 

Medium  and  Low-grade  Jewelry 139 

Silverware 149 

High-grade  Furniture 169 

Medium-grade  Furniture 179 

Lighting  Fixtures 189 

Ornamental  Builders'  Hardware 197 

Wall  Paper 201 

Ceramics 217 

Printing 227 


Schools  of  Applied  Art  in  the  United  States 251 

Endowed  Schools '2.^^ 

Schools  Connected  with  Colleges 273 

Schools  Connected  with  Museums 277 

Schools  Conducted  as  Private  Enterprises 282 

Schools  under  Public  Control 288 

Special  Schools  or  Classes 301 

Summary 306 

Industrial  Art  Education  in  Europe 

Instruction  in  Applied  Art  in  England 311 

The  British  Institute  of  Industrial  Art 3S3 

The  Design  and  Industries  Association 3^S 

Instruction  in  Decorative  Art  in  France 357 

Applied  Art  Schools  in  Switzerland 385 

Industrial  Art  Education  in  Germany 396 

Industrial  Art  Schools  in  Austria  and  Hungary  .    .    .  420 

Special  Articles 

The  Museum  and  Industrial  Art 435 

The  Arts  and  Crafts  Movement  in  the  United  States  440 

The  Relation  of  Beauty  to  Fashion 447 

The  Importance  of  a  Design  Registration  Law  .    .    ,  454 

The  Wiener  Werkstaette 458 

Agencies  Furthering  the  Situation  in  New  York  City  and 
Chicago 

The  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art 461 

The  Art  Center 464 

The  Architectural  League  of  New  York 466 

Art-in-Trades  Club 467 

The  School  Art  League  of  New  York  City 468 

The  Art  Institute  of  Chicago 470 

Association  of  Arts  and  Industries 471 

Conclusions 473 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


FACIWO 
PAOB 


Printed  silk  in  delicate  coloring  and  strong  line  treatment     50 
Printed  silk  with  effect  dependent  on  strong  color  spot- 
ting    50 

Printed  silk  with  conventionalized  scenic  effects  ...     54 
Printed  silk  with  delicately  naturalistic  flower  effect    .     54 

Printed  dress  silk,  "April  Showers" 58 

Printed  dress  silk,  "The  Stadium" 58 

Design  for  printed  silk  developed  by  artistic  arrange- 
ment of  sugar  cubes  and  spheres  under  studied  light 

conditions 60 

Cubistic  design  for  printed  silk 60 

Printed  sun-fast  cretonnes  that  emphasize  the  use  of  flat 

colors  rather  than  naturalistic  rendering    ....     66 
Printed  cretonnes  in  which  realistic  treatment  is  avoided 

and  effects  gained  through  flat  color  treatment  .    .     70 
Woven  upholstery  silk  adapted  from  a  brocade  of  the 

Louis  XIII  period 76 

Woven  upholstery  silk  adapted  from  a  Flemish  brocade 

of  the  17th  century 80 

Rayon  and  cotton  tapestry,  3  weft  and  6  warp  colors  .      84 
Cotton  tapestry  woven  with  rough  yarn,  3  weft  and  6 

warp  colors 84 

Jacquard  velvet  of  ramie  fibre 90 

Machine  woven  rug  with  design  adapted  from  the  deco- 
ration of  a  Chinese  vase  of  the  K'ang  Hsi  period  .     94 
Center  of  machine  woven  rug  with  design  adapted  from 

aPersianhuntingcarpetof  the  1 6th  century  .    .    .     98 

Silver  tea  urn  following  French  motives 150 

Silver  tea  urn  suggesting  English  design 150 

Silver  pitcher  showing  fine  classic  feeling  in  form  and 

decoration : 154 


FACING 
PAGE 


Silver  coffee  pot  based  on  early  American  form     .    .    .154 

Hand  wrought  silver  tea  pot  by  an  American  artist 

craftsman 158 

Hand  wrought  silver  covered  dish  by  a  foreign-born 
artist  craftsman  working  for  an  American  silver- 
smithing  establishment 158 

Silver  flatware  of  simple  form,  one  with  modelled  edge 
ornament  and  another  with  raised  edge  and  scroll 
pediment 162 

Silver  flatware,  one  design  based  on  extreme  simplicity 
and  refinement  of  form,  and  contrasting  design  with 
elaborate  modelled  ornament  illustrating  intricate 
die  cutting 166 

An  accurate  reproduction  in  mahogany  of  a  fine  English 

secretary  of  the  1 8  th  century 170 

Hand  made  settee  of  mahogany  illustrating  slightly 

modified  Sheraton  model 172 

Hand  made  buffet  of  mahogany  with  madrone  and  cherry 

burl  veneers  and  lining  in  various  woods    .    .    .    .174 

Sofa  design  in  contemporary  spirit  as  to  form  and  cov- 
ering   178 

Moderate  priced  buffet  in  oak  illustrating  free  period 

style  adaptation 180 

Moderate  priced  bedroom  set,  red  wood  burl  veneer, 

showing  strong  modern  feeling 1 84 

Bureau  of  early  American  type  with  surface  treatment 

essentially  modern  in  feeUng 188 

Electric  light  standard  in  which  the  effect  is  dependent 

upon  richly  ornamented  metal  work 190 

Hanging  electrolier  with  ornamental  metal  work  reduced 

to  small  proportions 192 


rACINO 
PAGE 


Two  electric  light  brackets  in  which  the  ornamental 
metal  work  plays  a  subordinate  part,  particularly 
in  the  right  hand  example 194 

Ceiling  fixtures  in  which  the  structure  is  practically  re- 
duced to  the  two  essential  elements:  electric  light 
bulbs  and  frosted  glass 196 

Service  plates  decorated  by  transfer  and  hand  raised 

enamels 218 

Plate  of  vitrified  china  with  underglaze  transfer  deco- 
ration     224 

Plate  of  spar  china  with  underglaze  transfer  decoration  224 

Plate  of  umber-toned  earthenware  body  with  overglaze 

transfer  decoration 224 

Plate  of  earthenware  with  overglaze  hand  painted  deco- 
ration made  in  England.  Design  made  in  United 
States 224 

Painting  by  Helen  Dryden  made  for  a  silk  manufactur- 
ing firm  for  advertising  use 230 

Black  and  white  composition  by  Rockwell  Kent  for  use 

in  magazine  advertising  by  a  jewelry  establishment   236 

Black  and  white  composition  by  Walter  D.  Teague  for 
use  in  magazine  advertising  for  an  automobile  con- 
cern   236 

Painting  by  Edward  A.  Wilson  for  a  motor  car  company 

for  advertising  use 242 

Illustration  by  George  Barbier  from  an  advertising  bro- 
chure of  a  perfumery  firm 248 


FOREWORD 

Art  is  a  plant  of  slow  growth.  All  great  periods  of  artistic 
achievement  have  been  the  culmination  of  extended  periods 
of  cultural  growth  in  which  the  racial  genius,  experimenting 
and  advancing  over  long  periods  of  years,  has  finally  issued  in 
manifestations  peculiarly  expressive  of  the  national  life  and 
qualities.  In  the  great  developments  of  the  past,  such  as  Greek 
and  Gothic  building,  Chinese  porcelains,  French  furniture 
and  Italian  textiles,  designers  and  craftsmen  in  each  distinc- 
tive period  have  followed  a  single  master  motive  or  style  to 
which  each  individual  has  but  added  his  own  personal  contri- 
bution towards  a  gradual  perfection  of  the  art.  Furthermore, 
throughout  these  great  periods  the  craftsman  and  designer 
were  for  the  most  part  one  and  the  same  person.  Even  when 
this  was  not  the  case  the  designer  stood  in  intimate  relations 
to  the  craft  and  his  attempts  at  artistic  expression  were  based 
on  a  thorough  understanding  of  materials  and  processes. 

This  era  of  craft  work  flowering  in  national  styles  came  to 
an  end  in  the  early  nineteenth  century.  Since  then  the  indus- 
trial and,  indeed,  the  artistic  character  of  the  world  has 
changed.  The  age  of  machinery  arrived.  Production  in  rel- 
atively vast  quantities  became  the  Rile,  and  aesthetically, 
ever  since,  we  have  been  to  a  large  extent  mastered  by  the 
machine.  Productively  the  machine  has  been  our  slave  and 
turned  out  increasing  quantities  of  goods  more  and  more  per- 
fect on  the  material  side.  But  artistically  we  are  still  engaged 
in  a  struggle  for  mastery. 

During  this  later  period,  the  older,  gradual  method  of  work- 
ing out  a  national  style  disappeared.  Creative  power,  to  keep 
pace  with  the  new  agencies  of  manufacture  and  give  appro- 
priate art  expression  to  the  products  of  the  new  order  was 
lacking  and  mankind  turned  back  for  resource  upon  the  artis- 
tic achievements  of  the  past,  choosing  here  and  there  a  motive, 
copying,  modifying  and  adapting,  according  to  the  momen- 
tary whim.  At  times  waves  of  reproductive  fashions  and  styles 
caused  by  some  occurrence  or  anniversary  have  taken  posses- 


2  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

sion  of  the  popular  fancy,  and  occasionally  efforts  have  de- 
veloped to  break  away  from  the  past  and  create  a  new  style, 
based  upon  new  ideas.  Outside  of  the  field  of  women's  dress 
and  its  contributing  textiles,  however,  a  review  of  the  arts 
for  the  past  century  shows  little  but  a  varied  kaleidoscope 
of  the  older  motives,  barren  for  the  most  part  of  new  ideas 
and  lacking  wholly  in  coordination  of  effort  toward  distinct 
modern  styles. 

In  America  we  assumed  our  place  as  a  nation  practically  at 
the  time  of  the  industrial  revolution.  We  had  no  artistic  tra- 
ditions except  those  of  the  mother  countries  where  the  old 
order  was  shortly  to  change  into  the  new.  Furthermore,  the 
material  needs  of  life  absorbed  all  the  energies  of  our  people. 
As  we  expanded  and  became  prosperous  the  genius  of  leader- 
ship was  absorbed  in  the  development  of  our  natural  re- 
sources, the  expansion  of  our  railroads,  the  opening  up  of  our 
mines,  the  felling  of  our  forests,  the  building  of  factories  and 
the  organization  of  our  industries.  Naturally,  under  such  con- 
ditions, we  looked  to  the  old  world  for  our  artistic  leadership. 
Our  architecture  is  the  most  outstanding  illustration,  but  the 
same  fact  runs  through  all  of  our  arts.  Like  all  Europe  we  have 
gone  back  to  the  past  and  we  have  gone  back  largely  through 
the  eyes  of  Europe. 

For  the  most  of  our  inspiration  in  later  years  we  have  turned 
to  France.  Paris  has  been  notably  the  center  of  styles  relating 
to  women's  wear  as  well  as  many  other  things  that  concern 
the  elegancies  of  life.  To  England  we  have  gone  in  many  mat- 
ters concerning  the  decoration  and  furnishings  of  our  homes. 

The  World  War  strikingly  brought  out  our  dependence 
upon  European  taste.  Importations  of  artistic  goods  ceased 
to  a  large  extent  and  it  was  no  longer  possible  to  purchase  de- 
signs or  copy  patterns  originated  abroad.  In  the  last  year  of 
the  war,  and  in  the  period  following,  with  the  relative  abun- 
dance of  money  in  this  country,  this  situation  was  brought 
out  in  marked  relief.  The  need  for  designers  was  severely  felt 
and  the  fact  that  the  schools  were  not  functioning  with  entire 
success  to  produce  such  designers  became  apparent.  During 


FOREWORD  3 

this  period  much  was  accomplished  in  certain  industries  to 
develop  our  own  resources  in  the  field  of  design  and  to  render 
us  comparatively  independent  of  Europe.  With  the  resump- 
tion of  artistic  production  in  Europe,  it  remains  to  be  seen 
whether  we  will  allow  ourselves  to  fall  back  upon  dependence 
on  foreign  leadership  or  whether  America  will  take  advantage 
of  the  ground  already  gained  and  make  resolute  efforts  to 
move  forward  substantially  in  its  artistic  development. 

The  present  survey  represents  an  attempt,  first  of  all,  to 
ascertain  the  situation  existing  in  the  art  industries  of  our 
country  as  to  standards  of  design  and  our  present  degree  of 
dependence  on  Europe.  Effort  has  also  been  made  to  ascertain 
the  artistic  and  practical  requirements  involved  in  the  de- 
signer's work,  the  professional  history  of  designers  now  en- 
gaged in  American  industry,  the  cause  of  the  lack  of  success  of 
our  art  schools  to  function  effectively,  and  the  opinions  of  in- 
dividuals prominent  in  the  art  industries  upon  a  number  of 
questions  as  to  the  training  of  and  requirements  for  designers 
and  as  to  methods  of  merchandising. 

While  by  no  means  the  only  element  considered,  it  will  be 
apparent  that  a  large  amount  of  attention  has  been  devoted 
to  the  conditions  under  which  designs  are  developed  and  those 
requisite  for  their  improvement.  This  has  been  done  with  full 
realization  that  the  quality  of  designs  obtainable  is  not  the 
only  factor  affecting  the  standards  of  applied  art.  Back  of 
quality  of  design  is  the  all-prevading  influence  of  popular 
taste — a  taste  represented  to  a  large  extent  by  relatively  crude 
standards  and  susceptible  only  of  gradual  improvement. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  evident  that  fine  quality  of  design, 
while  not  theonly  factor  in  raisingstandards  of  taste,  is  a  power- 
ful influence  in  advancing  the  whole  situation,  and  in  certain 
lines  of  industry  perhaps  all  sufficient.  In  the  fluid  movement 
andcontactsof  American  life,  with  the  ever-present  spectacleof 
the  street,  the  theatres,  and  other  forms  of  crowd  intercourse, 
with  the  rich  displays  of  the  department  stores,  with  the  eye- 
catching advertisements  in  the  magazines,  the  public  press  and 
other  commercial  literature,  the  fine  thing  becomes  quickly 


4  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

recognized  and  under  certain  conditions  becomes  a  powerful 
incentive  to  new  and  higher  standards. 

The  field  of  study  adopted  by  the  survey  is  that  of  the 
manufacturing  industries  in  which  design  exercises  a  relatively 
important  influence.  It  was  thought  best  to  confine  the  scope 
of  the  survey  to  these  industries  for  several  reasons.  In  the 
first  place,  they  represent  in  extent  by  far  the  largest  problem 
in  the  field  of  applied  art.  Certain  other  trades  or  vocations, 
to  be  sure,  represent  important  elements  from  the  artistic 
standpoint,  such  as  those  which  center  round  the  building  in- 
dustry, including  architectural  iron  work,  terra  cotta,  stone 
carving,  wood  carving  and  interior  decoration;  but  these  are 
within  the  purview  of  the  architect  or  the  architectural  de- 
signer and  from  all  practical  points  of  view  are  adequately 
taken  care  of. 

The  industries  that  were  selected  for  study  are  as  follows: 
Textiles,  costumes,  jewelry,  silverware,  furniture,  lighting 
fixtures  and  art  metal  work,  ceramics,  wall  paper,  and  printing. 

The  organization  of  the  survey  was  developed  as  follows : 

In  April,  191 9,  a  letter  was  presented  to  the  General  Edu- 
cation Board  by  the  executive  committee  of  the  National 
Society  for  Vocational  Education  urging  the  importance  of 
an  industrial  art  survey  of  national  scope.  In  November  of 
the  same  year,  the  Board  made  an  appropriation  of  |6o,ooo 
for  the  purpose  of  such  a  survey  and  requested  the  National 
Society  for  Vocational  Education  to  conduct  the  same.  The 
executive  committee  of  the  National  Society  accepted  the 
appropriation  and  agreed  to  conduct  the  survey.  A  committee 
of  three  consisting  of  Frederic  B.  Pratt,  David  Snedden  and 
Lewis  A.  Wilson  was  appointed  to  take  charge  of  the  un- 
dertaking. This  committee  appointed  Professor  Charles  R. 
Richards  as  Director  of  the  survey. 

The  first  step  in  the  internal  organization  of  the  survey  was 
the  appointment  of  a  general  advisory  committee  composed  of 
individuals  prominent  in  the  trades  to  be  studied  and  noted 
for  intelligent  and  sympathetic  interest  in  raising  the  artistic 
standards  of  these  trades.  To  these  were  added  several  indi- 


FOREWORD  5 

viduals  identified  for  their  interest  in  the  problem  of  applied 
art  and  representative  of  institutions  prominent  in  this  field. 

The  constitution  of  the  committee  was  as  follows:  John  P. 
Adams,  Albert  Blum,  Charles  Cheney,  William  Sloane  Coffin, 
De  Witt  A.  Davidson,  Robert  W.  De  Forest,  E.  W.  Fairchild, 
Julius  Forstmann,  C.  C.  Lane,  V.  F.  von  Lossberg,  Albert  E. 
Lyons,  Lachlan  McLachlan,  Max  Meyer,  John  C.  Oswald, 
Frederic  B.  Pratt,  W.  Frank  Purdy,  M.  D.  Rothschild,  W.  G. 
Snow,  E.  L.  Torbert,  and  Henry  R.  Towne. 

The  functions  of  this  committee  were  to  consider  and  ad- 
vise as  to  the  scope  and  methods  of  the  survey,  and  to  aid  in 
the  development  of  its  report.  The  first  meeting  of  this  com- 
mittee was  held  on  January  2nd,  1920,  at  which  time  a  gen- 
eral plan  for  the  survey  was  submitted  by  the  director  and 
discussed  by  the  committee.  A  number  of  suggestions  were 
offered  and  hearty  cooperation  in  the  undertaking  assured  by 
all  members.  Immediately  after  this  meeting  the  organization 
of  committees  in  the  several  trades  was  begun.  These  com- 
mittees were  composed  of  individuals  in  close  contact  with 
design  work  in  important  establishments.  The  number  on 
these  committees  varied  according  to  the  character  of  the  in- 
dustry. In  the  textile  industry,  with  its  many  subdivisions,  the 
committee  numbered  seventeen.  In  industries  like  ceramics, 
and  wall  paper,  the  number  was  three  or  four.  The  function  of 
these  committees  was  to  consider  in  detail  methods  of  proce- 
dure and  to  indicate  to  the  director  the  establishments  and 
individuals  most  worth  while  to  approach  for  the  purpose  of 
study.  Individuals  on  these  committees  signed  letters  of  in- 
troduction which  were  carried  by  members  of  the  field  staff 
in  seeking  interviews. 

The  membership  of  these  committees  is  given  below. 

Costume  trades — ^Max  Meyer,  E.W.  Fairchild,  Milton  Wolf, 
Edward  L.  Mayer,  A.  E.  Harrison,  Edwin  Goodman,  Harry 
Collins,  Mrs.  A.  H.  Flanders,  Jacob  Rapoport,  Alfred  G.  Son, 
Frederick  Bode. 

Textile  'Trades — Charles  Cheney,  Albert  Blum,  E.  Irving 
Hanson,  Julius  Forstmann,  A.  L.  Gifford,  David  Aaron, 


6  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

Felix  Meyer,  W.  G.  Burt,  M.  D.  C.  Crawford,  Arthur  Selig, 
Albert  E.  Bonotaux,  Matthew  W.  Ryan,  J.  Walter  MacLaren, 
Thomas  F.  Gurry,  W.  G.  McCullough,  Sidney  Blumenthal, 
T.  P.  Costello,  William  Sloane  Coffin,  A.  J.  Graffin,  John 
Snowden,  H.  T.  Wight,  Robert  Schey. 

Jewelry — Meyer  D.  Rothschild,  De  Witt  A.  Davidson, 
Herbert  L.  Farrow,  Jacob  Mehrlust,  August  Goldsmith,  Frank 
Milhening,  Harald  Ostby,  Orrin  Clifford. 

Silverware — ^W.  Frank  Purdy,  W.  G.  Snow,  Gilbert  Crowell, 
G.  A.  Henckel,  Albert  Southwick. 

Furniture — John  P.  Adams,  Lachlan  McLachlan,  James 
Criswell,  Edward  Nahon,  Embury  Palmer. 

Lighting  Fixtures — ^V.  F.  von  Lossberg,  Walter  Kantack, 
Stephen  de  Kosenko. 

Wall  Paper — ^Albert  E.  Lyons,  Henry  Burn,  Howard  M. 
Heston,  T.  S.  Marshall. 

Ceramics — E.  L.  Torbert,  Frank  G.  Holmes,  L.  S.  Hinman, 
Edwin  M.  Knowles. 

Printing  'Trades — John  C.  Oswald,  C.  C.  Lane,  G.  F.  Kalk- 
hoff,  E.  F.  Eilert,  William  E.  Rudge,  E.  E.  Bartlett,  Edward 
Epstean,  Robert  R.  Heywood,  Le  Roy  Latham,  Douglas  C. 
McMurtrie,  Stanford  Briggs,  Heyworth  Campbell,  Egbert  G. 
Jacobson,  Ray  Greenleaf. 

All  data  collected  in  the  survey  studies  were  obtained  by 
personal  interview  between  members  of  the  staff  and  indi- 
cated representatives  of  commercial  establishments.  The  main 
bulk  of  data  was  obtained  through  the  establishment  repre- 
sentative, often  a  member  of  the  firm,  the  manager  or  the 
styler.  In  addition  certain  data  were  gathered  as  to  the  pro- 
fessional histories  of  the  designers  employed  in  the  establish- 
ment designing  rooms,  together  with  opinions  as  to  training 
for  such  work.  Wherever  possible,  information  concerning  the 
designers  was  obtained  by  personal  interviews.  In  many  cases, 
however,  the  persons  responsible  for  the  design  work  of  the 
establishment  were  found  to  be  sensitive  in  regard  to  the 
approach  of  the  survey  representative  to  the  designers  and  in 


FOREWORD  7 

such  cases  it  was  found  necessary  to  obtain  data  in  this  direc- 
tion from  questionnaires  left  in  the  establishments. 

Besides  the  study  of  the  manufacturing  establishments, 
studies  have  also  been  made  of  the  commercial  studios  sup- 
plying designs  to  the  trade.  A  considerable  number  of  inter- 
views have  also  been  had  with  free-lance  designers  in  each 
trade  where  such  designers  form  an  important  element.  In  the 
printing  trade  a  special  effort  was  made  to  obtain  opinions 
upon  certain  matters  from  a  large  number  of  art  directors  of 
advertising  agencies,  as  well  as  from  prominent  commercial 
illustrators  and  artists  working  as  individuals. 

Fourteen  persons  were  employed  to  make  the  field  studies. 
In  almost  every  case  it  was  found  possible  to  secure  workers 
who  had  had  both  practical  contact  with  the  trade  to  be 
studied  and  some  teaching  experience  in  an  art  school.  The 
survey  was  especially  fortunate  in  the  quality  of  personnel 
that  it  was  able  to  secure  for  this  work.  The  personal  qualities 
of  its  representatives  together  with  their  practical  knowledge 
of  design  conditions  in  the  various  trades  made  possible  an 
accurate  and  comprehensive  collection  of  the  desired  data. 

The  central  field  of  investigation  was  naturally  New  York 
City.  Not  only  does  New  York  set  the  fashions  for  the  country 
in  women's  wear,  but  to  an  astonishing  degree  it  has  become 
the  center  of  designing  for  most  of  the  important  industries  of 
the  country.  Where  in  former  years  the  designers  were  located 
at  the  mill  or  factory,  as  in  the  case  of  the  textile  trade,  they 
are  now,  at  least  for  creative  designing,  attached  to  the  offices 
in  New  York.  This  change,  of  course,  comes  from  the  fact 
that  this  city  has  become  the  commercial  center  of  the  coun- 
try. Designing  is  most  naturally  accomplished  where  the 
fashions  and  styles  originate  and  where  the  buyers  congregate. 

The  purpose  of  the  survey,  however,  has  been  to  make  a 
national  study,  and  the  investigations  of  the  field  representa- 
tives have  been  extended  to  some  fifty-five  cities  extending  as 
far  west  as  Minneapolis  and  St.  Louis  and  with  special  refer- 
ence to  places  where  important  developments  of  the  art  indus- 
tries are  found. 


8  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

In  addition  to  the  trade  survey,  a  study  of  the  work  in  ap- 
plied design  represented  by  the  art  schools  of  the  country  was 
made.  A  conference  of  representatives  of  fifteen  of  the  more 
important  schools  of  the  country  was  had  in  New  York  City 
on  March  31st,  1921.  The  plan  and  scope  of  the  survey  was 
laid  before  the  conference  and  it  was  agreed  that  a  school 
study  was  a  logical  and  necessary  element  in  the  survey.  Up- 
on motion,  a  committee  of  five  was  appointed  by  the  director 
to  cooperate  in  the  prosecution  of  this  school  study.  The  com- 
mittee as  appointed  consisted  of  Walter  S.  Perry,  L.  Earle 
Rowe,  Frank  Alvah  Parsons,  Huger  Elliott,  George  K.  Gom- 
barts.  A  data  sheet  for  the  school  study  was  drawn  up  in  co- 
operation with  the  committee  and  two  persons  were  employed 
to  make  the  studies.  The  study  of  the  schools  in  New  York 
State  was  made  by  the  New  York  State  Department  of  Edu- 
cation. 

In  developing  a  report  aiming  to  improve  American  methods 
of  training  designers,  it  was  deemed  necessary  to  include  a 
study  of  the  schools  of  applied  design  and  industrial  art  in 
certain  countries  of  Europe.  For  this  purpose  a  representative 
was  sent  to  Europe  in  the  spring  of  1920,  who  inspected  and 
studied  schools  of  applied  art  in  France,  Switzerland,  and 
England.  The  time  devoted  to  this  study,  namely  three  months, 
while  not  sufficient  for  a  comprehensive  survey  of  the  entire 
art-school  situation,  developed,  it  is  believed,  the  salient  facts 
of  most  significance  to  our  American  problem.  In  the  final 
development  of  the  reports  of  the  schools  in  England  and 
France,  the  survey  has  had  the  valued  assistance  of  eminent 
educational  authorities  in  these  countries.  In  regard  to  indus- 
trial art  education  in  Germany  the  survey  has  been  able  to 
make  use  of  a  modification  of  the  report  prepared  in  191 2  by 
Dr.  James  P.  Haney  for  submission  to  the  Board  of  Education 
of  New  York  City.  The  pre-war  situation  in  regard  to  applied- 
art  instruction  in  Austria-Hungary  has  been  described  by 
Professor  Gyula  Mihalik,  until  1922  director  of  the  Royal 
Hungarian  School  of  Industrial  Art  at  Budapest. 


TRADE  STUDIES 

It  should  be  stated  at  the  outset  that  the  period,  January 
to  September,  1920,  during  which  the  field  studies  of  survey 
were  conducted,  was,  in  many  ways,  an  abnormal  period.  The 
large  increase  of  money  in  circulation  in  the  United  States, 
particularly  among  laboring  people  and  those  of  ordinarily 
moderate  income,  brought  about  an  amount  of  luxury  buying 
that  the  country  has  never  before  witnessed.  As  a  conse- 
quence, and  with  the  added  fact  that  in  certain  industries  im- 
portations from  abroad  had  practically  ceased,  the  demand 
upon  production  sources  was  one  for  quantity  rather  than 
quality,  or  at  least  novelty  of  design.  During  such  a  period 
buyers  were  largely  content  with  standard  products  and  did 
not  insist  upon  freshness  and  beauty  of  design  to  the  extent 
that  obtains  in  normal  times.  As  a  result  designing  staffs  in 
certain  industries  in  spite  of  very  large  demand  for  production 
were  actually  decreased  and  in  some  staple  branches  of  the 
textile  trades  it  was  found  that  looms  were  carrying  the  same 
patterns  that  they  carried  a  year  previous.  This  situation  has 
been  somewhat  unfortunate  as  it  has  necessarily  to  some  ex- 
tent colored  opinions  and  influenced  data.  Effort  has  been 
made,  however,  to  translate  the  data  obtained  into  terms  of 
normal  supply  and  demand. 

Study  of  the  actual  conditions  under  which  designs  are  pro- 
duced for  the  art  industries  brings  out,  first  of  all,  the  varied 
nature  of  the  situation.  Not  only  are  the  conditions  in  great 
contrast,  as  between  different  industries,  but  they  vary  to  a 
remarkable  degree  between  branches  of  the  same  industry. 
For  example,  the  conditions  surrounding  the  production  of 
designs  for  printed  silks  bears  little  or  no  relation  to  those 
concerned  with  designs  for  woolens. 

Furthermore,  it  is  evident  that  in  certain  industries,  chiefly 
those  concerned  with  women's  wear  and  contributory  textiles 
or  in  graphic  advertising,  where  the  requirements  of  the  case 
demand  constant  variety  and  novelty  and  where  the  products 
are  submitted  to  critical  and  discriminating  appraisal,  the 


J 


lo  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

production  of  designs  has  reached  a  high  degree  of  creative 
activity  and  also  of  artistic  results.  On  the  other  hand,  in"^ 
other  industries — mainly  the  household  arts  group,  where 
the  demand  for  variety  and  novelty  is  less  and  competition 
weaker  on  the  part  of  the  consumer — not  only  is  the  demand 
for  new  designs  less  marked  but  the  extent  of  creative  work  j 
is  much  smaller. 


COSTUMES 

The  clothing  industry  in  the  United  States  ranks  second  in 
the  manufacturing  industries  of  the  country  in  regard  to 
value  of  product.  In  this  great  development  the  manufacture 
of  ready-made  clothing  has  reached  very  large  proportions 
and  represents  a  situation  peculiar  to  this  country.  The 
United  States  Census  of  Manufactures,  1914,  states:  "Prior 
to  1880  the  manufacture  of  women's  ready-made  clothing 
was  confined  almost  entirely  to  cloaks.  In  the  early  eighties 
ladies'  ready-made  suits  were  introduced,  and  later  shirt 
waists,  and  by  1900  all  articles  making  up  women's  wearing 
apparel  were  on  the  market  ready-made." 

This  manufacture  of  ready-made  clothing,  particularly  in 
the  matter  of  women's  apparel  has  centered  very  largely  in 
the  city  of  New  York,  where  the  clothing  trades  hold  first 
rank,  in  point  of  value  of  product  and  number  of  persons 
engaged,  among  the  industries  of  the  city.  This  development 
has  been  made  possible  largely  by  the  great  immigration  of 
Jewish  people  from  eastern  Europe.  Through  the  peculiar 
genius  of  these  people  for  merchandising,  their  highly  de- 
veloped individualism,  their  artistic  perception  and  their 
thorough  training  in  the  craft  of  tailoring  the  costume  indus- 
try of  New  York  City  has  been  largely  built  up.  In  the  manu- 
facture of  women's  clothing  the  Census  of  1914  shows  3,723 
establishments  in  New  York  City  producing  a  product  of  the 
value  of  1339,843,000  as  compared  to  5,564  establishments 
in  the  entire  United  States  with  a  product  of  1473,888,354. 


12  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

CUSTOM  DRESSMAKING— MODEL  MAKING 

In  the  matter  of  fine  costumes  for 
Nature  of  Design  women  the  word  Paris  has  for  half  a 
USED  IN  century  spelled  everything  of  prestige 

THE  Industry  and  elegance  to  the  American  woman. 
Against  a  cult  so  firmly  established 
and  so  universally  widespread,  progress  is  extremely  slow 
and  difficult.  New  York  City  has  indeed  become  the  American 
Paris  in  fine  costume  making,  but  it  is  a  Paris  that  is  obliged 
to  struggle  in  competition  with  the  older  city,  not  merely  on 
the  basis  of  achievement,  but  against  a  heavy  weight  of  tra- 
dition. A  number  of  the  leading  costume  makers  in  New  York 
City  have  for  years  been  engaged  in  a  resolute  effort  to  de- 
velop American  designs  and  to  create  styles  for  women's 
dresses.  They  have  persisted  in  this  effort  at  times  in  the  face 
of  pecuniary  loss. 

The  world  war  afforded  an  opportunity  for  these  establish- 
ments to  gain  an  appreciation  of  their  products  never  before 
possible.  Today  a  number  of  the  foremost  dressmakers  depend 
largely,  if  not  wholly,  upon  their  own  creations  and  receive 
their  patronage  on  this  basis.  In  some  cases  they  pursue  a  com- 
promise policy,  French  models  being  imported  and  exhibited 
side  by  side  with  the  American  creations. 

Among  these  leading  houses  a  very  high  order  of  artistic 
talent  is  to  be  found  together  with  high  ideals  and  ambitions 
as  to  American  possibilities  in  this  field.  In  these  establish- 
ments the  designs  are  in  every  sense  original,  suggestions  com- 
ing from  every  direction — from  Europe,  from  the  museums, 
from  the  theatres  and  elsewhere;  but  the  resultant  gowns  are 
distinctly  new  creations. 

As  the  grade  of  the  establishment  lowers,  less  and  less  orig- 
inal work  is  found,  and  more  and  more  dependence  is  placed 
upon  Parisian  models.' With  this  dependence  it  was  found 
there  was  liable  to  go  an  increasing  attitude  of  scorn  and 
skepticism  for  American  designs.  Even  in  these  establishments, 


COSTUMES  13 

however,  it  was  found  that  the  models  obtained  from  Paris 
have  to  be  modified  in  order  to  conform  to  American  taste. 
In  high-grade  establishments  the  de- 
Where  Designs         signers  are  employedwithin  the  house; 
ARE  few  designs  are  purchased  from  free- 

Obtained  lance  artists.  Such  a  policy  is  essen- 

tial, as  these  houses  aim  to  produce  a 
style  typical  of  the  establishment,  and  it  is  impossible  for  the 
outside  designer  to  sense  the  qualities  of  the  situation. 

One  of  the  establishments  studied  is  a  French  importation 
house  where  no  original  designing  is  done.  They  buy  and 
copy  French  models  entirely.  Six  of  the  other  establishments 
purchase  some  designs  in  Europe.  Only  one  representative 
states  that  he  considers  European  designs  superior  to  the 
best  produced  in  America.  In  this  case  it  was  stated  that  it  is 
impossible  to  produce  costumes  in  this  country  equal  to  those 
of  Paris  because  we  lack  the  atmosphere  to  inspire  original 
creations.  Representatives  of  the  other  establishments  state 
that  while  they  do  not  consider  European  designs  superior, 
they  find  it  necessary  to  import  them  because  of  the  demand 
of  their  customers.  One  element  in  the  situation  that  makes 
it  difficult  to  market  American  creations  is  the  prestige  and 
superior  prices  commanded  by  costumes  made  in  Paris.  Retail 
establishments  throughout  the  country  often  request  that  the  j 
French  label  be  placed  upon  costumes  made  in  New  York.       ,!\ 

One  establishment  purchases  some  designs  from  a  free- 
lance artist,  the  general  characteristics  and  color  scheme  of 
the  design  being  defined  by  the  styler.  In  the  lower-grade 
houses  many  outside  designs  are  purchased  and  are  worked 
over  by  a  sketcher  employed  in  the  establishment.  Most 
houses  maintain  one  or  more  sketchers  who  copy  the  designs 
for  purposes  of  record. 

In  all  establishments  there  is  a  styler 
How  New  Designs     who  either  defines  the  design  or  passes 
ARE  Defined  upon  the  designs  produced  by  the  de- 

signers. In  several  establishments  the 
styler,  who  is  often  the  proprietor  or  a  member  of  the  firm. 


14  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

is  also  a  designer.  In  one  of  these  firms  no  other  designer  is 
employed.  This  head  designer  and  styler  had  an  extensive  art- 
school  training.  With  this  exception  the  stylers  were  devel- 
oped through  practical  experience  in  the  trade. 

There  are  two  methods  of  designing 
Wo  RK  prac  ticed  in  the  trade,  preference  being 

OF  Designers  shown  to  one  or  the  other  according 
to  the  taste  or  the  ability  of  the  de- 
signer. In  most  cases  the  design  is  developed  by  draping  and 
pinning  material  on  a  manikin  or  a  dress  form.  This  is  some- 
times first  done  in  crinoline,  followed  by  the  finished  material. 
After  this  comes  the  cutting  of  patterns,  fitting,  and  finally 
the  making  of  a  sketch.  The  other  method  is  to  design  the 
costume  first  on  paper  with  pencil  and  color  wash.  This  is 
followed  by  a  study  of  the  effect  produced  in  the  actual 
material,  draping  on  a  model  and  by  criticism  and  alterations. 
Cases  were  found  where  the  head  designer  used  one  method 
and  the  assistant  designers  the  other. 

The  number  of  designers  employed 

Training  in  the  establishments  studied  varies 

OF  Designers  with  the  season,  a  few  of  the  firms 

employing  additional  designers  in  the 

spring  and  in  the  fall  of  the  year. 

Information  concerning  twelve  designers  was  obtained.  All 
were  trained  in  the  United  States.  Three  had  art-school 
training  and  nine  were  trained  through  practical  work  in  the 
establishments,  one  of  these  having  had  some  training  in  an 
evening  school.  One  other  firm  employs  from  four  to  twelve 
designers,  depending  upon  the  season,  some  of  whom  were 
trained  in  art  schools  and  others  in  the  trade. 

The  persons  employed  to  make  sketches  for  purposes  of 
record  were  found  almost  uniformly  to  have  had  art-school 
training. 

Salaries  range   from  $35   per  week 
Remuneration  of       for  beginners  to  $io,cxdo  and  even 
Designers  ^20,000  per  year  for  experienced  de- 

signers.   In  none  of  the  establish- 


COSTUMES  15 

ments  is  there  a  fixed  scheme  of  salary  progression,  but  the 
salary  is  increased  as  the  designer  shows  proficiency  in  his 
work. 

The  opinion  was  uniformly  expressed 
Demand  for  that  not  more  designers  are  needed  for 

Designers  the  creation  of  fine  costumes  in  Amer- 

ica, but  more  gifted  and  more  broadly 
cultivated  designers  capable  of  developing  even  finer  products 
which  will  bear  critical  comparison  with  the  designs  of  Paris 
shops. 

One  leading  costumer  expressed  the  opinion  that  this  A 
country  is  not  so  much  in  need  of  designers  as  in  need  of    I 
education  of  the  American  woman  to  the  point  where  she  will 
possess  both  the  taste  and  the  courage  to  express  her  own 
individuality  in  dress  rather  than  to  follow  blindly  the  lead   / 
of  fashion.  ^ 

All  of  the  establishment  representa- 
Training  tives  expressed  the  opinion  that  no 

Recommended  by       courses  in  the  present  art  schools  fur- 
EsTABLiSHMENT         nished  an  adequate  training  for  de- 
Representatives       signers  of  costumes,  but  that  a  helpful 
training  might  be  developed  in  such 
schools  if  courses  specially  adapted  for  the  industry  were  de- 
veloped. All  feel  that  essential  elements  in  such  courses  are 
sewing,  draping,  cutting,  fitting,  study  of  fabrics,  and  draw- 
ing both  from  the  nude  and  the  draped  figure.  Five  feel  that 
students  should  do  marketable  work  while  in  school.  One 
representative  feels  very  strongly  that  it  would  not  be  prac- 
ticable for  students  to  put  in  part  time  in  commercial  estab- 
lishments as  part  of  their  training,  while  four  believe  that  this 
would  be  a  good  plan  if  it  could  be  arranged.  One  recommends 
that  students  apprentice  themselves  during  the  summer  in 
costume  establishments. 

Six  believe  that  evening  schools  are  of  value  in  the  training 
of  designers,  while  two  do  not.  The  majority  feel  that  the 
employers  should  assume  a  large  responsibility  for  the  train- 
ing of  their  employees  in  the  design  room. 


i6  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

Records  were  obtained  from  six  de- 

Training  signers  employed  in  establishments 

Recommended  studied.  Four  of  these  feel  that  the 

BY  Designers  best  foundation  for  their  work  is  a 

school  training  which  should  be  largely 

of  a  practical  nature,  including  sewing,  cutting,  fitting  and 

draping,  as  well  as  drawing  from  the  figure,  color,  and  study  of 

historic  motives.  Two  believe  that  the  best  training  can  be 

obtained  in  practical  work  supplemented  by  outside  school 

training. 

One  designer,  who  is  a  graduate  of  an  art  school  of  good 
standing,  believes  that  designers  should  have  a  four-year 
training  in  art,  which  should  include  a  great  deal  of  drawing 
from  the  figure  and  cast,  study  of  anatomy,  and  of  design 
and  ornament,  as  well  as  practical  training  in  cutting,  fit- 
ting and  making,  and  study  of  materials. 

One  representative  feels  that  museum 
Museum  collections  of  dresses  are  of  value  to 

Collections  designers  of  fancy  or  theatrical  cos- 

tumes but  that  they  are  of  little  impor- 
tance to  designers  in  high-grade  dressmaking  establishments. 
One  other  states  that  museums  are  of  little  value  for  the  cos- 
tume trade.  With  these  exceptions  the  representatives  feel 
that  museum  collections  are  an  important  source  of  inspira- 
tion. Two  representatives  state  that  if  a  loaning  system  could 
be  established  by  museums  it  would  add  greatly  to  their  value. 
It  is  felt  that  reproductions  and  photographs  as  well  as 
original  specimens  should  be  included.  Four  feel  that  present- 
day  products  of  costumes  and  textiles  should  be  given  a 
place.  The  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art  and  the  Museum  of 
the  Brooklyn  Institute  of  Arts  and  Sciences  are  mentioned  as 
being  of  great  help  to  designers  in  Greater  New  York.  It  is 
generally  felt  that  the  museum  should  be  open  in  the  evening. 

Of  late  years  there  has  been  much  at- 

SuMMARY  tention  paid  in  art  schools  to  the 

training  of  young  persons  for  costume 

drawing,  but  very  little  has  been  accomplished  in  the  way  of 


COSTUMES  17 

developing  costume  designers.  The  work  in  costume  illustra- 
tion is  of  great  importance  as  a  factor  in  educating  public 
taste,  but  it  does  not  directly  produce  costume  designers. 

The  majority  of  high-grade  designers  in  American  costume 
houses  have  been  developed  through  practical  experience  in 
producing  establishments.  In  a  few  notable  cases,  however, 
they  have  received  training  in  art  schools.  When  the  present 
achievements  in  American  costume  design  are  taken  into 
account  and  the  conditions  requisite  for  future  expansion 
considered,  it  would  seem  fair  to  conclude  that  training  op- 
portunities involving  a  more  liberal  amount  of  art  culture 
than  can  be  readily  obtained  in  the  design  room  are  liable 
to  be  of  much  value.  Although  it  is  true  that  not  many  high- 
grade  designers  are  needed,  it  is  also  true  that  the  quality  of 
creative  work  that  is  in  demand  and  the  liberal  compensa- 
tion that  is  available  for  real  talent  are  such  as  to  justify 
an  extended  period  of  school  training. 

Such  a  school  training  is  evidently  not  to  be  found  along 
the  lines  of  present  art-school  courses.  Neither  is  it  to  be 
found  wholly  in  dressmaking  courses.  What  is  needed  is  to 
some  extent  a  combination  of  the  two.  A  thorough  training 
on  the  practical  side,  which  develops  a  mastery  of  making 
processes,  a  knowledge  of  materials  and  a  habit  of  sound 
craftsmanship  should  be  made  the  foundation.  The  handling 
of  fabrics,  and  the  actual  making  of  dresses  should  provide 
the  main  opportunity  for  cultivation  of  the  artistic  point  of 
view.  Effort  should  be  made  to  awaken  the  critical  faculty  in 
the  students  from  the  start.  Such  a  course  should  confine  its 
instruction  to  young  persons  who  show  a  serious  desire  to 
learn  thoroughly  the  dressmaking  trade  and  at  the  same  time 
give  some  evidence  of  artistic  ability. 

According  to  the  stylers'  and  designers'  judgment,  the 
course  of  instruction  should  include,  on  the  practical  side, 
thorough  courses  in  sewing,  cutting,  fitting  and  making  of 
dresses  and  should  give  considerable  study  to  the  various 
dress  materials  and  their  appropriate  use.  On  the  other  side, 
instruction  in  drawing  should  be  had  culminating  in  work 


1 8  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

from  the  draped  and  nude  figure.  This  should  be  accompanied 
by  the  study  of  anatomy.  Work  in  color  should  be  a  prominent 
element  and  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  study  of  historic 
costume  styles.  It  seems  very  desirable  that  work  in  such  a 
school  should  center  in  the  actual  making  of  dresses  for  use 
and  for  sale  and  that  students  should  be  paid  a  proper  share 
of  the  profits  obtained. 

In  order  to  insure  the  practical  quality  of  the  instruction 
in  such  a  course,  an  advisory  committee  of  experts  from  the 
costume  trades  should  be  developed  and  brought  into  inti- 
mate cooperative  relations.  A  valuable  service  could  be  con- 
tributed by  members  of  such  a  committee  in  practical  demon- 
stration as  to  methods  of  costume  draping  before  the  class. 

Such  a  course  would  obviously  be  an  experiment  and  it 
could  hope  to  gain  recognition  only  slowly  through  results. 
If  American  art  schools,  however,  can  develop  such  courses 
they  will  be  in  a  position  to  render  a  large  service  to  the  fine- 
costume  trade  in  this  country. 

Evening  classes  present  an  important  channel  for  the  de- 
velopment of  costume  designers.  At  present  most  of  the 
instruction  in  evening  classes  given  under  the  heading  of 
"costume  design"  is  calculated  to  train  for  costume  drawing 
rather  than  for  design.  If  such  classes  are  to  function  in  the 
development  of  future  designers  it  will  apparently  be  only 
through  reaching  young  people  already  experienced  in  dress- 
making processes  and  giving  them  instruction  in  drawing 
and  composition  accompanied  by  practice  in  draping  and 
arranging  dress  materials  in  garment  form. 

Note:  A  course  now  being  developed  at  Pratt  Institute  will  follow 
substantially  the  lines  indicated  above. 

In  the  Massachusetts  Normal  Art  School  effort  is  made  to  ac- 
quaint the  students  with  practical  trade  conditions  by  requiring 
members  of  the  fourth-year  class  in  costume  design  to  spend  eight 
weeks  in  a  dressmaking  establishment.  During  this  period  the 
students  are  paid  regular  wages  and  enter  the  shop  on  the  same 
footing  as  other  workers.  They  obtain  practice  in  various  kinds 
of  sewing,  cutting,  draping,  and  fitting. 


COSTUMES  •  19 

WHOLESALE  DRESSMAKING 

In  the  wholesale  dressmaking  estab- 

Nature  of  Designs      lishments,  as  in  the  case  of  the  custom 

USED  IN  houses,  there  is  a  constant  demand  for 

THE  Industry  newdesigns.  This  demand  is  met  partly 

by  copying  or  modifying  the  success- 
ful products  of  the  retail  houses  both  here  and  abroad  and 
partly  by  the  creation  of  new  designs  in  the  establishments. 
Inspiration  for  these  new  designs  comes  largely  from  Paris  but 
of  late  there  has  been  a  marked  tendency  in  certain  high-grade 
houses  to  develop  designs  evolved  from  American  rather  than 
from  European  suggestions. 

Interviews  were  obtained  from  seven 

Where  Designs        establishments.    In  one  of  these  the 

ARE  Obtained  owner  designs  all  of  the  costumes 

produced.  All  of  the  other  establish- 
ments employ  designers.  In  one  case  no  models  or  sketches 
are  purchased  outside,  and  the  four  designers  employed  are 
relied  upon  to  develop  new  styles.  Sketches  which  may  have 
helpful  ideas  for  the  designers  to  work  from  are  purchased  by 
four  establishments.  Four  establishments  report  that  they 
import  models  from  Europe,  and  that  these  invariably  have 
to  be  modified  to  meet  the  demands  of  the  American  market. 
Only  two  representatives  state  that  European  designs  are 
superior  to  those  obtainable  in  the  United  States. 

In  four  cases  the  stylers,  who  are  the 

How  Designs  are       proprietors,  determine  the  character 

Defined  of  the  style  to  be  followed.  These 

stylers  were  all  developed  in  the  in- 
dustry. In  three  of  the  firms,  however,  the  designers  them- 
selves evolve  the  styles.  They  are  merely  told  what  type  of 
dress  they  are  to  design,  whether  for  street,  afternoon,  or 
evening  wear,  and  are  then  given  free  rein.  In  one  of  these 
establishments  the  models  made  up  are  shown  to  a  committee 
of  the  leading  customers  and  this  committee  decides  which 
models  shall  constitute  the  line  for  the  season.  In  the  other 


20  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

two  establishments,  where  the  designers  work  out  their  own 
ideas,  the  proprietor  passes  upon  the  models  before  they  are 
accepted. 

With  the  exception  of  tailored  dresses. 
Work  of  Designers     which  are  first  worked  up  in  canvas, 

the  almost  uniform  practice  is  to 
develop  new  designs  directly  in  the  material,  which  is  draped 
until  the  desired  effect  is  secured.  A  sample  model  is  then  made 
which  is  used  for  reproduction.  In  some  cases  a  sketch  of  the 
new  design  is  first  made  and  submitted  to  the  styler,  but  this 
is  not  the  general  practice.  After  a  model  has  been  developed 
a  sketch  is  usually  made  of  it  for  record  purposes.  This  is  done 
by  an  artist  and  not  by  the  designer,  who  is  rarely  able  to 
sketch. 

As  stated  above,  the  owner  of  one  of 
Training  of  the  establishments  studied  employs 

Designers  no  other  designers.  With  this  excep- 

tion all  of  the  houses  employ  design- 
ers, the  total  numbering  eighteen  or  more,  according  to  the 
demand.  One  of  these  received  an  art-school  training  in  Ger- 
many. This  was  felt  to  be  of  little  direct  value  to  her  in  her 
work  as  a  designer.  One  received  her  first  training  in  the  prin- 
ciples of  design  and  color  in  one  of  the  New  York  City  high- 
schools.  Four  received  their  training  entirely  in  the  industry, 
partly  in  Europe  and  partly  in  the  United  States.  The  remain- 
ing twelve  were  all  trained  through  practical  experience  in  the 
United  States. 

Sending  the  designers  to  museums,  theatres,  exhibitions, 
hotels  and  other  places  which  might  prove  helpful  in  stimu- 
lating their  imagination  and  improving  their  work  are  men- 
tioned by  establishment  representatives  as  measures  employed 
to  inspire  designers  to  greater  effort  and  originality  in  their 
work.  Several  representatives  state  that  their  policy  is  to  give 
their  designers  as  much  freedom  as  possible  in  their  work  and 
to  do  everything  possible  making  for  their  comfort  and  hap- 
piness in  the  establishments.  They  believe  that  such  condi- 
tions substantially  assist  in  the  production  of  superior  designs. 


COSTUMES  21 

Salaries  noted  range  from  $50  per 

Remuneration  of       week  to  the  high  figure  of  $25,000 

Designers  per  year.  Sometimes  an  interest  in 

the  business  is  given,  if  necessary,  to 

hold  a  good  designer. 

Conditions  as  to  the  demand  for  de- 
Demand  for  signers  in  wholesale  dressmaking  is 

Designers  very  similar  to  that  in  custom  dress- 

making. It  is  not  a  demand  for  num- 
bers, but  a  demand  for  quality. 

The  conviction  is  uniformly  held  that 

Training  art  schools  as  at  present  organized 

Recommended  by       do  not  train  designers  for  work  in  this 

Establishment         field.  The  opinion  is  also  very  gener- 

Representatives        ally  expressed  that  a  school  training 

might  be  developed  that  would  be  of 

much  practical  value  to  the  trade.  One  representative  feels 

that  in  such  a  case  an  advisory  committee  of  manufacturers 

should  be  affiliated  with  the  school.  The  opinion  is  uniformly 

held  that  craft  work  should  be  the  basis  of  any  school  work 

aiming  to  produce  designers. 

The  opinion  was  expressed  in  a  number  of  cases  that 
designs  should  be  made  for  the  market  by  students  and  that 
these  might  be  of  much  value  to  the  trade  if  the  school  were 
operated  on  practical  lines  with  an  expert  designer  at  the 
head. 

Although  the  training  in  present  evening  classes  is  con- 
sidered to  be  inadequate,  the  statement  was  made  by  the 
majority  of  those  interviewed  that  such  classes  could  be 
made  helpful  to  designers  in  the  trade  through  instruction 
in  costume  drawing  and  sketching. 

A  majority  of  the  representatives  state  their  conviction 
that  in  case  a  practical  school  training  should  be  developed 
a  large  responsibility  should  be  assumed  by  the  manufacturers 
to  further  the  training  of  the  graduates  of  such  schools  in  the 
producing  establishments. 


22  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

Two  of  the  designers   interviewed 

Training  believe  in  a  school  training  which 

Recommended  by       shall  embrace  practical  courses  in 

Designers  sewing,  draping,  fitting,  and  drawing, 

color  and  historic  costume.  Another 

does  not  believe  in  school  training  but  feels  that  designers  are 

born,  not  made. 

Museums  containing  collections  of 
Museum  costumes  arranged  historically  are 

Collections  uniformly  felt  to  be  of  great  import- 

ance in  the  development  of  designers 
in  this  country.  Originals  should  be  secured  wherever  possible, 
but  reproductions  and  photographs  are  also  considered  as  help- 
ful. It  is  not  the  general  opinion  that  such  collections  should 
provide  for  the  display  of  present-day  garments.  One  repre- 
sentative states,  however,  that  costumes  made  a  season  or 
two  previously  might  well  be  included. 

One  representative  mentions  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of 
Art  as  fulfilling  the  needs  of  costume  designers  in  Greater 
New  York.  With  this  exception  it  was  reported  that  existing 
museums  do  not  meet  the  needs  of  the  trade.  All  believe  that 
museums  should  be  open  in  the  evening. 

Although  the  need  for  creative  genius 
Summary  in  the  designer  for  wholesale  dress- 

making is  not  so  great  as  in  the  case 
of  the  exclusive  custom  product  there  is  a  very  real  demand 
and  large  opportunities  for  high-grade  designers  for  this  im- 
portant branch  of  the  industry.  This  demand  cannot  be  met 
by  young  persons  possessing  the  usual  ideals  and  training  of 
the  art-school  student.  An  education  functioning  solely  in 
compositions  on  paper  is  in  no  sense  adequate  for  the  situation. 
For  the  evolution  of  the  successful  dress  designer  years  of 
painstaking  application  to  the  mastery  of  craft  processes  are 
necessary.  On  this  mastery  of  processes,  knowledge  of  ma- 
terials, understanding  of  commercial  methods  and  apprecia- 
tion of  dress  effects  in  color,  line  and  mass,  must  be  built  up 
the  capacity  to  create  successful  designs. 


COSTUMES  23 

So  far,  designers  have  been  almost  exclusively  developed  in 
the  severe  discipline  of  the  trade.  Out  of  many  aspirants  only 
those  possessing  a  balance  of  marked  practical  ability,  strong 
perseverance  and  artistic  talent  have  reached  success.  No 
school  provides  such  a  training  in  any  full  measure  at  the 
present  time,  and  it  would  require  several  years  to  demonstrate 
whether  a  school  can  successfully  maintain  effective  instruc- 
tion on  these  lines,  adequate  to  meet  the  trade  needs,  and 
whether  students  can  be  attracted  to  courses  of  this  kind 
requiring  several  years  of  application. 

If  any  training  can  be  developed  through  the  schools  that 
will  meet  this  situation  and  produce  better-equipped  designers 
than  the  present  methods,  it  must  in  all  probability  issue 
along  the  lines  laid  down  in  the  case  of  custom  dressmaking. 
If  a  school  can  be  developed  to  fulfill  the  one  need,  it  can 
probably  contribute  to  the  other. 


24  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

BLOUSES 

The  competition  for  successful  de- 

Nature  of  signs  in  blouses  is  very  keen,  and 

Designs  Used  in        novelty  is  constantly  demanded.  No 

THE  Industry  article  of  women's  wear  reflects  more 

sensitively  the  trend  of  fashion.  De- 
signs are  apt  to  suggest  the  character  of  costume  in  that 
part  of  the  world  where  public  interest  centers  for  the  time 
being.  Parisian  styles  are  followed  to  a  large  extent,  but  the 
general  practice  is  not  to  copy  European  models  but  to  develop 
designs  based  upon  the  motives  popular  abroad.  During  the 
war,  styles  in  this  field  were  relatively  independent  of  Paris, 
but  in  the  last  two  years  the  large  source  of  inspiration  has 
again  shifted  to  that  city.  In  the  development  of  blouse  styles 
particular  scrutiny  is  paid  to  the  trend  of  the  cloak  and  suit 
trade. 

In  all  cases  designs  are  developed  in 

Where  Designs        the  establishments.  In  six  of  the  firms 

Are  Obtained  studied  no  designers  are  employed, 

the  stylers  themselves  developing  the 
designs.  In  one  case  a  large  number  of  French  models  are  im- 
ported. The  establishment  finds  it  necessary  to  modify  these 
considerably  and  many  are  not  used  at  all.  In  two  other  cases 
a  few  models  are  purchased  each  year  from  Europe.  In  other 
cases,  however,  it  is  admitted  that  many  ideas  are  obtained 
from  foreign  styles.  Only  two  representatives  report  that  they 
consider  European  styles  to  be  superior  to  those  developed  in 
the  United  States. 

The  owner  or  head  of  the  firm  gener- 

How  New  Designs      ally  serves  as  the  styler  and  brings 

Are  Defined  new  motives  either  to  the  designers 

or  to  the  drapers.  All  designers  inter- 
viewed indicate  that  considerable  responsibility  is  given  to  the 
designer  in  developing  new  ideas,  although  the  suggestions 
are  defined  more  or  less  specifically  by  the  styler.  After  a 
number  of  new  models  have  been  developed  the  reaction  of 


COSTUMES  25 

the  wholesale  buyer  gives  an  indication  as  to  which  of  the  de- 
signs will  be  most  popular  and  should  be  developed. 

In  all  cases  the  stylers  were  developed  through  practical 
experience  in  the  business. 

The  designer  of  blouses  generally 
Work  of  Designers     works  directly  in  the  material.  A 

small  room  is  set  aside  for  the  de- 
signer with  a  large  work-table.  The  material  is  draped  on  a 
form  until  the  desired  effect  is  obtained,  and  then  it  is  turned 
over  to  a  sample  hand  who  cuts  the  pattern  and  then  makes 
up  a  sample  blouse.  Only  one  case  was  found  where  the  designs 
were  first  rendered  on  paper.  In  this  establishment  the  styler, 
who  is  also  owner,  defines  the  general  character  of  the  design 
and  the  assistant  designer  is  expected  to  go  to  the  library  or 
museum  and  develop  sketches  for  approval,  after  which  the 
final  designs  are  drafted. 

In  establishments  which  do  not  employ  any  designers,  the 
styler  himself  either  drapes  the  waists  or  directs  the  drapers 
as  to  the  effect  desired. 

Of  the  ten  establishments  studied, 
Training  of  four  employ  designers;  the  remainder 

Designers  report  no  designers,  but  merely  drap- 

ers. The  number  of  designers  em- 
ployed in  the  four  establishments  totals  ten  or  more.  All  of 
these  were  trained  in  the  United  States.  In  the  case  of  the 
establishment  which  develops  its  designs  on  paper  the  designer 
had  received  instruction  in  one  of  our  prominent  art  schools. 
The  remaining  seven  designers  were  all  trained  through  prac- 
tical experience  in  the  industry.  As  a  rule  these  designers  have 
worked  up  from  sample  hands  or  operators.  In  the  establish- 
ment where  art-school  students  are  employed  such  beginners 
are  started  in  at  the  bottom  to  learn  the  processes  of  manu- 
facture. The  head  of  this  establishment  devotes  much  atten- 
tion to  furthering  the  practical  training  of  the  designers 
employed  and  exerts  much  care  to  obtain  young  women  of  cul- 
ture with  good  home  surroundings.  She  states  that  not  many 
art-school  graduates  are  content  to  begin  at  the  foot  of  the 


26  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

ladder  in  the  workroom  and  learn  the  processes  of  production. 
Effort  is  reported  in  the  majority  of  cases  to  stimulate  de- 
signers by  liberal  salaries  and  by  giving  them  a  large  amount 
of  freedom  to  visit  libraries,  museums  and  stores.  In  one  case 
the  statement  was  made  that  a  necessary  condition  for  the 
best  creative  work  is  to  surround  designers  by  a  congenial 
atmosphere  with  every  possible  freedom  and  absence  of  dis- 
turbing elements. 

The  salaries  reported  range  from  $60 

Remuneration  of       to  $250  a  week;  $100  a  week  is  given 

Designers  as  the  maximum  generally  paid  to 

drapers.  In  the  case  where  beginners 

from  art  schools  are  employed  they  are  paid  $20  a  week  at 

the  start. 

As  in  the  case  of  the  other  costume 

Demand  for  trades  the  demand  is  for  better  de- 

Designers  signers  rather  than  for  any  increased 

numbers.  In  the  words  of  the  head 

of  oneestablishmentjwhat  is  wanted  is  "quality, not  quantity; 

one  real  designer  is  all  any  firm  needs." 

The  fact  is  noted  in  several  cases  that  the  most  able  of  the 
drapers  tend  to  frequent  change  of  positions  to  advance  their 
salaries,  or  to  go  into  business  for  themselves. 

All  of  the  establishment  representa- 
Training  tives  interviewed  place  the  emphasis 

Recommended  by       in  the  training  of  the  designer  upon 
Establishment         practical  experience  in  draping,  cut- 
Representatives       ting  and  fitting.  Feeling  for  color, sen- 
sitiveness to  new  ideas  and  fertility  of 
imagination  are  emphasized  as  the  qualities  most  needed  in  the 
designer.  Knowledge  of  weaves  and  materials  together  with 
understanding  of  the  possibili  ties  of  embroidery  are  emphasized 
as  most  important.  Knowledge  of  historic  costumes  and  of  pic- 
torial art  are  men  tioned  in  several  cases  as  of  value.  In  only  one 
case  is  facility  in  drawing  and  rendering  considered  important. 
In  no  case  is  the  training  in  the  present  art  schools  con- 
sidered as  sufficient  to  develop  a  designer.  One  firm  reports 


COSTUMES  17 

that  if  such  training  could  be  made  practical  it  would  be  of 
great  value,  but  that  this  requires  that  the  school  be  headed 
by  a  practical  designer  capable  of  earning  a  salary  of  from 
|io,ooo  to|i5,oooayear.  In  the  one  case  where  students  have 
been  employed  from  an  art  school,  emphasis  is  laid  upon  the 
necessity  of  a  subsequent  long  training  in  the  practical  con- 
ditions of  the  industry. 

If  an  attempt  is  to  be  made  to  train  designers  in  schools, 
nine  representatives  agree  that  craft  work,  especially  draping 
and  sewing,  would  be  essential.  Two  report  that  students 
should  perform  commercial  work  in  the  schools.  The  others 
believe  that  commercial  experience  can  best  be  gained  in  the 
establishments.  All  think  that  commercial  experience  should 
be  provided  after  the  school  training  in  which  the  establish- 
ments assume  a  large  measure  of  responsibility. 

Nine  feel  that  evening  classes  might  be  of  some  help  in  the 
situation  while  one  feels  that  work  during  the  day  is  so  strenu- 
ous that  attendance  would  be  questionable. 

Records  were  obtained  from  five  de- 
Training  signers.  All  of  these  feel  that  if  school 

Recommended  by       training  for  this  field  is  developed, 
Designers  much  emphasis  must  be  put  upon 

craft  work.  One  notes  that  a  course  of 
six  or  eight  months  would  be  long  enough.  Three  believe  that 
an  art-school  training  might  be  developed  to  prepare  for  the 
industry  and  that  designs  should  be  made  for  the  market. 
One  believes  that  no  school  could  be  of  much  help  and  that 
the  industry  must  be  relied  upon  for  training,  and  that  in- 
born qualities  are  necessary  to  make  the  designer.  In  order 
to  insure  growth  and  originality  in  her  work  one  designer 
speaks  of  going  to  the  museums  and  to  places  where  she 
can  hear  good  music.  She  believes  that  relaxation  is  necessary, 
that  one  cannot  do  good  work  in  designing  when  tired. 

Seven  establishment  representatives 
Museum  feel  that  collections  of  costumes  and 

Collections  weaves  would  be  very  helpful  to  de- 

signers in  the  industry,  and  that  such 


28  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

collections  should  include  photographs  and  reproductions 
as  well  as  original  costumes.  Three  express  most  interest  in 
a  costume  library.  In  no  case  was  the  opinion  expressed  that 
the  display  of  present-day  artistic  products  would  be  of  value 
and  no  one  was  found  who  felt  that  any  existing  museum  sup- 
plies the  needs  of  this  branch  of  the  costume  trade. 

The  task  of  creating  elegant  blouses 
Summary  for  women's  wear  is  one  that  requires 

delicate  artistic  feeling  together  with 
knowledge  of  making  processes  and  the  different  effects  ob- 
tainable by  these  processes.  It  is  a  more  specialized  problem 
than  costume  design  but  one  scarcely  less  difficult.  Knowledge 
of  processes  is  fundamental  and  whether  a  school  course  that 
will  combine  practical  work  with  instruction  in  design  can 
successfully  compete  with  practical  training  is  a  question  not 
easily  answered. 

One  leading  establishment  has  derived  benefit  from  em- 
ploying beginning  designers  who  have  had  an  art-school 
training  and  has  pursued  this  policy  for  several  years.  Such 
an  example  would  seem  to  indicate  that  for  the  creation  of 
the  finest  and  most  elegant  products  school  training  has  a 
commercial  value.  It  is  apparent  that  the  number  of  designers 
needed  is  too  small  to  permit  any  special  school  provisions  for 
this  particular  industry  and  if  it  is  within  the  power  of  the 
school  to  make  a  helpful  contribution  in  this  field  it  would 
seem  to  be  in  company  with  the  provisions  noted  under  cus- 
tom and  wholesale  dressmaking. 


COSTUMES  29 

CLOAKS  AND  SUITS— WHOLESALE 

Cloaks  and  wraps  demand  the  same 
Nature  of  Designs     frequent  change  in  style  that  is  exhib- 
USED  IN  ited  in  dresses  and  therefore  call  con- 

THE  Industry  stantly  for  new  designs.  The  design 
for  cloaks  is  dependent  upon  changing 
conditions  of  living  perhaps  even  more  than  dresses.  As  an 
example,  the  increasing  use  of  automobiles  has  lately  devel- 
oped a  demand  for  a  summer  wrap  which  can  be  readily  put 
on  while  in  the  car  and  thrown  aside  when  leaving. 

This  demand  for  variety  of  designs  does  not  hold  in  the 
same  degree  with  suits.  In  the  American  type  of  tailored  suit 
the  element  of  design  is  limited  though  exacting.  The  tailored 
suit  manufactured  and  marketed  in  wholesale  quantities  is 
almost  an  American  creation  and  one  of  the  most  conspicuous 
examples  of  our  genius  for  quantity  production.  One  element 
in  the  success  of  such  suits  is  high  quality  of  workmanship 
and  the  world-wide  reputation  for  fine  execution  that  has 
been  gained  for  these  products  is  a  high  tribute  to  our  leader- 
ship in  this  field. 

The  term  designer  in  the  cloak  and  suit 

Where  Designs         industry  is  applied  to  the  cutterswho 
Are  Obtained  carry  out  the  ideasofthestyleror  who- 

ever evolves  motives  for  new  designs. 

All  except  two  of  the  eleven  establishments  studied  em- 
ploy designers  within  their  own  staffs.  One  establishment 
which  does  not  employ  designers  buys  all  designs  and  models 
in  Paris,  the  proprietor  of  the  other  develops  his  own  designs. 

Nine  establishment  representatives  report  buying  a  con- 
siderable portion  of  their  designs  in  Paris.  Most  of  these  have 
to  be  modified  to  meet  American  requirements,  however.  One 
representative  states  that  he  buys  about  one  hundred  sketches 
and  one  hundred  models  from  Paris  every  year,  the  prices 
paid  for  the  sketches  ranging  around  $5  and  for  models  from 
^150  to  $500.  Three  representatives  consider  European  de- 
signs superior  to  those  created  in  the  United  States. 


30  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

The  proprietor  or  styler  decides  upon 
How  New  Designs      the  character  of  new  designs.    He 
Are  Obtained  brings  these  ideas  to  the  designers 

or  cutters  either  through  a  garment 
to  be  modified  or  copied  or  by  means  of  a  drawing,  or  im- 
parts his  ideas  by  word  of  mouth.  Cases  were  noted  in 
the  cloak  and  suit  industry  where  new  conceptions  were  first 
worked  out  on  paper  within  the  establishments,  but  these 
were  the  exception  and  not  the  rule.  The  stylers  were  found 
to  be  individuals,  frequently  commanding  large  salaries,  who 
had  been  developed  through  practical  experience  in  the  trade 
and  oftentimes  persons  of  wide  experience,  exceptional  keen- 
ness of  observation  and  artistic  judgment. 

In  the  smaller  establishments  and  those  manufacturing  a 
low-grade  product  a  styler  is  seldom  found,  and  the  cutter- 
designer  himself  develops  the  new  designs. 

The  work  of  the  designer  so  called  in 
Work  of  Designers     this  industry  is  to  translate  the  ideas 

of  the  styler  or  true  designer  into 
actual  material  through  the  development  of  a  sample  garment. 
In  the  case  of  all  tailored  garments,  the  garment  is  usually 
first  developed  in  canvas.  The  canvas  is  fitted  to  the  model 
or  manikin  and  corrected  until  it  is  exactly  right.  The  canvas 
then  serves  as  the  pattern  for  the  cloth  model  which  in  turn 
requires  final  adjustments.  In  some  establishments,  a  small 
room  is  provided  for  the  designers  where  they  have  at  their 
disposal  a  large  table,  forms  and  quantities  of  paper  patterns 
and  other  material.  In  other  places,  the  designers  are  allowed 
only  a  portion  of  the  factory  floor  in  which  to  work. 

Nine  establishments  noted  employ  a 
Training  of  total  of  twenty-five  or  more  designers. 

Designers  Of  these  the  large  majority  are  per- 

sons who  have  worked  up  through 
the  practical  side  of  the  trade  and  have  taken  courses  in  draft- 
ing, cutting  and  fitting  in  special  schools. 

Records  were  obtained  from  three  free-lance  designers.  One 
of  these  was  trained  in  Europe,  wholly  through  commercial 


COSTUMES  31 

practice,  having  had  ten  years'  experience  in  practical  design- 
ing in  France.  The  other  two  were  trained  mainly  through 
practical  experience  and  through  costume-design  courses  in 
an  evening  school  in  the  United  States. 

The  salaries  reported  range  from  $2^ 

Remuneration  of      per  week  for  beginners  to  $1 5,000  per 

Designers  year  for  stylers.  The  salaries  most 

commonly  given  for  designer-cutters 

are  from  $3,000  to  $10,000  per  year. 

Two  representatives  report  that  the 

Demand  for  business  oftheir  establishments  would 

Designers  be  expanded  if  a  larger  supply  of 

high-grade  designers  were  available. 

Others  express  the  opinion  that  greater  efficiency  and  artistic 

results  would  be  possible  in  their  business  if  a  higher  grade  of 

cutter-designer  were  obtainable. 

Practical  tailoring,  that  is,  training 

Training  in  cutting,  fitting,  draping,  pattern 

Recommended  by       grading,  etc.,  is  emphasized  by  the 

Establishment         majority  of  the  establishment  repre- 

Representatives       sentatives  as  the  first  essential  in  the 

training  of  designers  for  the  cloak 

and  suit  industry.  In  addition  to  this,  the  artistic  side  of 

the  designer  should  be  developed  by  training  in  drawing 

and  sketching,  and  study  of  the  history  of  costumes,  and  of 

color. 

Two  of  the  establishment  representatives  believe  that,  if 
run  on  practical  lines,  schools  should  be  able  to  train  effect- 
ively young  persons  for  beginning  work  as  apprentice  cutters 
with  the  opportunity  of  developing  into  designers.  The 
others  believe  that  a  designer  of  cloaks  and  suits  must  work 
up  in  the  trade,  that  school  training  is  helpful,  but  that  prac- 
tical experience  is  of  primary  importance. 

Eight  representatives  believe  that  employers  should  take 
young  persons  into  the  establishments  and  assume  a  large 
share  of  responsibility  for  their  further  training. 

It  is  not  generally  felt  that  evening  classes  can  be  of  service 


32  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

in  training  designers  for  this  industry.  One  representative 
states  that  this  is  because  the  people  employed  in  commercial 
houses  are  generally  not  young  enough.  Another  represent- 
ative states  that  attendance  upon  night  classes  would  be  con- 
trary to  the  rules  of  the  unions. 

Training   in    the   practical   side   of 
Training  tailoring  is  emphasized  by  all  of  the 

Recommended  by       designers  from  whom  interviews  were 
Designers  obtained.  If  school  training  is  to  be 

made  effective,  all  believe  that  craft 
work  must  be  the  basis — that  there  should  be  instruction  in 
sewing,  trade  knowledge,  drafting  and  cutting  of  patterns,  fit- 
ting, and  cutting  of  material.  Three  believe  that  the  students 
should  do  marketable  work  while  in  school.  From  three  to 
four  years  are  given  as  the  desirable  length  of  school  term. 

The  elements  emphasized  by  the  three  free-lance  designers 
interviewed  are:  a  broad  art  training,  including  a  study  of  the 
human  figure,  perspective,  color,  historic  styles,  as  well  as 
training  in  practical  work  in  cutting,  fitting,  etc. 

Only  three  representatives  answered 
Museum  the  questions  in  regard  to  the  import- 

CoLLECTiONS  ancc  and  value  of  museum  collections 

in  the  training  of  designers  for  this 
industry.  All  of  these  believe  that  collections  of  costumes 
are  a  very  valuable  source  of  inspiration  and  that  they  should 
be  used  extensively.  One  states  that  he  considers  such  a  collec- 
tion the  most  important  step  that  could  be  taken  in  improv- 
ing costume  design  in  this  country.  All  believe  that  both 
originals  and  reproductions  as  well  as  photographs  should 
have  a  place  in  such  a  museum  and  that  present-day  products 
should  be  included  in  such  a  collection.  These  representatives 
do  not  feel  that  existing  museums  meet  the  needs  of  the 
trade. 

The  situation  in  regard  to  design  in 

Summary  the  cloak  and  suit  trade  represents 

highly    specialized    and    somewhat 

peculiar  conditions.  In  establishments  producing  a  high-grade 


COSTUMES  23 

product,  new  motives  as  to  style  and  design  are  introduced  by 
keen,  experienced  persons  upon  whose  judgment  the  artistic 
success  of  the  establishment  depends.  These  ideas  are  inter- 
preted in  actual  form  by  the  cutters  who  bear  the  name  of 
designers.  Artistic  results  depend  upon  the  former,  technical 
success  upon  the  latter.  In  the  first  group  creative  ability  is 
not  so  much  needed  in  this  particular  industry  as  keen  obser- 
vation of  style  tendencies  and  power  to  utilize  every  possible 
hint  in  a  telling  way  in  effective  make-up. 

In  the  second  group  thorough  technical  equipment  and  in- 
telligence are  first  of  all  necessary.  Beyond  this,  ability  to 
sketch  and  to  draw  the  human  figure  would  seem  to  be  ex- 
tremely desirable. 

These  cutters  or  designers  have  usually  been  developed 
from  tailors.  Their  technical  equipment  has  been  obtained  in 
one  of  two  ways:  either  by  direct  experience  in  establishment 
workrooms  or  by  taking  courses  of  instruction  in  drafting 
and  cutting.  These  methods  have  served  fairly  well  to  supply 
technical  knowledge.  They  obviously  do  not  go  far  to  guaran- 
tee intelligence  or  breadth  of  information  in  the  workers. 

Of  late  years  a  few  young  men  have  entered  the  trade  after 
a  course  of  training  in  a  public  day  vocational  school  where 
they  have  received  instruction  in  drafting  and  cutting.  So  far 
these  young  men  have  not  graduated  into  designers,  largely 
because  they  have  not  received  the  needed  experience  in 
tailoring  in  the  establishments.  The  method  of  training  repre- 
sented by  these  young  men,  however,  would  seem  to  possess 
considerable  possibilities.  If  on  the  one  hand  the  school  train- 
ing which  is  now  limited  entirely  to  technical  instruction  and 
to  one  year  in  length  could  be  extended  to  a  longer  period  and 
made  to  include  sewing  and  tailoring  and  instruction  in 
sketching,  drawing  from  the  figure  and  study  of  costume 
styles  and,  on  the  other  hand,  if  the  manufacturers  would 
agree  to  recognize  this  training  as  a  basis  and  see  to  it  that 
such  school -trained  graduates  were  given  opportunities  of 
apprenticeship  in  tailoring  as  assistant  sample  makers  and 
later  on,  in  the  case  of  those  showing  capacity,  were  given 


34  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

places  as  assistants  to  the  designers,  a  natural  and  satisfactory- 
source  of  supply  might  be  brought  into  the  situation.  To  de- 
velop such  a  school  of  instruction  on  an  effective  basis  it 
probably  would  be  necessary  for  the  trades  to  contribute  to 
the  salaries  of  some  of  the  instructors  in  order  to  secure  ex- 
perienced and  capable  persons. 

This  is  evidently  not  an  art-school  problem.  Any  training  to 
fit  the  situation  must  be  based  on  technical  instruction  in 
drafting  and  cutting.  This  basic  training  undertaken  in  a 
school  that  is  purely  vocational  in  character  and  enriched  by 
instruction  in  drawing  and  style  study  might  develop  not 
only  a  practical  product  but  one  capable  of  considerable  after 
development. 


COSTUMES  2s 

RETAIL  MILLINERY 

The  problem  of  high-grade  millinery 

Nature  of  Designs      design  differs  somewhat  from  that  of 

USED  IN  costumes  in  that  the  demand  for  nov- 

THE  Industry  elty  and  fresh  effects  extends  through- 

out the  year  and  is  governed  very 
little  by  seasonal  periods. 

The  influence  of  Paris  is  more  strongly  felt  in  the  millinery 
industry  than  in  any  other  of  the  costume  trades.  One  or  two 
high-grade  establishments  have  broken  away  from  this  in- 
fluence and  are  creating  original  styles,  but  the  majority  are 
still  dependent  almost  entirely  upon  Paris  for  inspiration  and 
ideas  in  the  form  of  imported  models.  It  is  the  usual  custom 
of  buyers  to  make  semiannual  trips  to  Paris  to  purchase  the 
latest  models  and  materials.  Many  of  these  models  are  copied 
exactly,  but  each  French  hat  is  liable  to  suggest  a  number  of 
different  compositions  to  the  competent  designer. 

In  addition  to  the  designs  gained  from  French  hats,  ideas 
are  obtained  from  all  conceivable  sources — from  historic 
costume  documents,  fashion  magazines,  museum  collections, 
new  fabrics  and  embroideries,  and  foreign  travel.  At  times 
the  detail  on  a  gown  will  suggest  a  motive  for  a  hat.  In  custom 
establishments  where  dresses  and  suits  are  made  as  well  as 
millinery,  designs  are  often  created  for  customers  who  wish 
to  obtain  a  hat  to  harmonize  with  an  individual  suit  or  gown. 

In  high-grade  retail  millinery  the  element  of  cost  does  not 
limit  the  designer  to  the  extent  that  is  true  in  the  wholesale 
branch  of  the  industry.  In  fact,  in  the  most  exclusive  shops 
it  may  be  said  that  practically  no  restriction  faces  the  de- 
signer in  this  direction  in  the  majority  of  cases. 

Seven  retail  millinery  establishments 

Where  Designs        were  surveyed.  One  of  these  estab- 
Are  Obtained  lishments  had  no  designer  except  the 

owner.  A  total  of  fifty-five  designers 
are  employed  by  the  remaining  six  establishments. 

In  the  case  of  two  firms  almost  the  entire  output  consists 


36  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

of  hats  which  are  either  copied  or  evolved  from  imported 
French  models.  Three  concerns  purchase  from  ten  to  twenty- 
five  per  cent,  of  their  designs  from  Europe.  One  firm  pur- 
chases but  a  small  percentage,  and  another  purchases  no 
designs  whatever  from  this  source.  All  of  the  establishments 
except  the  two  last  mentioned  consider  French  designs 
superior  to  those  produced  in  the  United  States. 

The  establishments  develop  or  modify  their  designs  within 
their  own  staffs,  none  being  purchased  from  free-lance  de- 
signers. The  existence  of  designers  outside  the  establishment 
is  uniformly  considered  by  the  representatives  as  undesirable. 

As  stated  above,  in  one  establishment 

How  Designs  Are      studied,  the  owner  himself  originates 

Defined  the  designs.  He  is,  therefore,  at  once 

owner,  styler  and  designer.  In  this  case 
copyists  only  are  employed  to  develop  the  designs.  In  another 
firm  producing  a  very  high-grade  product  the  person  who 
supplies  the  motives  is  also  the  designer.  Here  also  only  copy- 
ists are  employed.  In  the  other  firms,  either  a  member  of  the 
firm  or  the  head  of  the  department  defines  the  character  of  the 
style  to  be  followed  and  brings  suggestions  to  the  designer. 
All  of  the  establishments  feel  that  the  success  of  the  design 
department  depends  very  largely  upon  this  person.  Two  of  the 
stylers  were  artists,  one  in  Paris  and  the  other  in  the  United 
States,  before  taking  up  millinery;  another  styler,  a  French- 
man, received  his  training  under  some  of  the  best  milliners  in 
Paris.  The  remaining  four  were  developed  entirely  through 
practical  experience  in  the  millinery  business  in  the  United 
States. 

The  usual  practice  in  millinery  estab- 
WoRK  OF  Designers    lishments  is  for  the  designers  to  sit  at 

the  head  of  tables  around  which  are 
grouped  a  number  of  milliners.  The  designer  develops  the 
frame  for  a  hat  and  selects  the  fabrics  to  be  used  which  she 
pins  to  the  frame.  This  is  then  turned  over  to  one  of  the 
workers  who  makes  up  the  hat  in  skeleton  fashion  and  returns 
it  to  the  designer  for  criticism. 


COSTUMES  37 

Usually  only  a  mere  suggestion  is  given  to  the  designer  by 
the  styler.  The  designers  are  generally  allowed  to  select  their 
own  material  and  trimmings.  As  a  rule  the  styler  passes  on 
the  finished  product. 

The  owner-styler  mentioned  above  deals  directly  with  his 
copyists.  He  indicates  what  is  wanted  and  corrects  the  models 
until  they  meet  his  ideas.  This  individual  states  that  his 
ideas  are  gained,  outside  of  French  models,  from  all  manner 
of  sources,  particularly  from  a  study  of  the  antique.  In  addi- 
tion he  visits  Spain  and  Italy  and  the  southeastern  countries 
of  Europe,  from  which  places  he  obtains  suggestions  that  he 
modifies  for  American  uses. 

Fifty-five  designers  are  employed  by 
Training  the  seven  firms  studied.  Of  these,  three 

OF  Designers  were  trained  in  France  and  fifty-two 
in  the  United  States.  Records  were 
obtained  from  six  of  the  more  important.  Three  were  trained 
entirely  through  practical  experience  in  the  trade.  One  had 
an  extensive  art-school  training  before  taking  up  work  in 
designing.  One  designer  worked  part  time  in  several  of  the 
high-class  shops  on  Fifth  Avenue  and  attended  an  art  school 
and  millinery  classes  during  the  remainder.  Another  learned 
the  technical  processes  in  a  millinery  workroom  and  later  sup- 
plemented this  training  by  attendance  at  an  evening  school 
for  costume  design  in  New  York  City. 

The  same  system  of  developing  designers  within  the  estab- 
lishment as  described  in  the  wholesale  millinery  study  is 
followed  to  a  smaller  degree  in  the  retail  shops. 

Five  establishment  representatives  state  that  designers 
employed  at  a  fixed  salary  are  liable  to  fall  into  a  rut  unless 
their  work  is  constantly  criticized  by  the  styler.  Various 
methods  are  employed  by  establishments  to  stimulate  their 
designers  to  further  development.  Among  these  are:  arrange- 
ments allowing  them  to  inspect  the  best  styles  from  Paris, 
subscribing  to  the  most  authoritative  style  publications  both 
here  and  abroad,  keeping  the  designers  posted  as  to  which  of 
their  designs  sell  well  and  urging  them  to  go  to  places  that 


38  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

might  give  them  inspiration,  such  as  libraries  and  museums, 
the  new  plays  or  a  luncheon  at  a  smart  hotel. 

Salaries  of  designers  as  reported  vary 
Remuneration  of     from  $i 2  to  |i 5  a  week  for  beginners  to 
Designers  $i  50  a  week  for  experienced  designers. 

Advertising  or  recommendations  are 
Demand  for  usually  depended  upon  in  securing  new 

Designers  designers.    One  establishment  repre- 

sentative states,  however,  that  it  is 
more  satisfactory  to  develop  the  girls  in  his  own  workroom 
because  of  the  special  knowledge  thus  insured. 

As  in  other  branches  of  the  costume  trades,  the  demand  in  re- 
spect to  millinery  designers  is  not  for  more  but  for  better  design- 
ers. There  is  always  strong  need  of  talen  ted,  in  ven  tive  designers, 
possessing  a  thorough  knowledge  of  practical  requirements. 
The  opinion  is  expressed  by  all  of  the 
Training  representatives  interviewed  that  the 

Recommended         present  art  schools  do  not  furnish  an 
BY  Establishment     adequate  training  for  beginning  work 
Representatives      in  thedesign  department  of  a  millinery 
establishment.  Three  state  that  they 
do  not  believe  in  millinery  schools  as  a  basis  for  learning  the 
trade.  One  expresses  the  opinion  that  a  girl  should  first  gain 
practical  experience  in  an  establishment  and  then  if  she  shows 
ability  should  go  to  evening  art  classes  for  instruction  in  period 
costume  design  and  historic  motives.  One  representative  says 
that  if  the  same  methods  were  used  in  schools  that  are  em- 
ployed in  commercial  establishments  wonderful  assistance 
would   be  rendered  to  the   artistic  side  of  the  millinery 
trade. 

Elements  that  should  be  observed  if  school  training  is  to 
be  developed  are — composition  leading  to  the  study  of  line 
and  mass  in  costume,  color  harmony,  the  history  of  styles  and 
the  ability  to  manipulate,  compose  and  combine  materials  for 
light  and  shade  and  color  effects.  One  representative  empha- 
sizes the  need  for  cheerful  surroundings  if  a  designer  is  to  do 
good  work.  Another  states  the  opinion  that  young  designers 


COSTUMES  39 

are  found  to  possess  more  enthusiasm  for  the  creation  of  new 
ideas  than  older  workers. 

One  establishment  employs  girls  who  are  studying  millinery 
in  one  of  the  advanced  schools  in  New  York  City  on  a  half- 
time  basis.  This  policy  has  been  pursued  for  two  years,  with 
a  result  that  very  good  material  has  been  found  among  these 
students.  The  other  representatives  feel  that  such  an  arrange- 
ment is  difficult  to  carry  into  effect. 

Three  representatives  feel  that  if  experienced  and  competent 
persons  can  be  secured  as  instructors  in  evening  schools,  much 
benefit  will  be  derived  by  assistants  in  attending  these  schools. 

Five  designers  in  millinery  establish- 
Training  ments  expressed  views  as  to  the  kind 

Recommended  by       of  training  which  would  be  most 
Designers  desirable  for  designers  in  this  indus- 

try. Three  believe  in  a  day-school 
training,  provided  competent  instructors  can  be  had  and 
instruction  developed  in  line  with  the  work  done  in  com- 
mercial establishments.  Two  of  these  believe  that  such  train- 
ing would  be  of  most  value  after  a  foundation  of  technical 
knowledge  has  been  obtained  in  a  producing  establishment. 
Two  believe  that  night-school  training  in  design,  supplement- 
ing practical  work  in  an  establishment,  is  the  best  means  of 
dealing  with  the  situation.  These  designers  feel  that  it  would 
not  be  feasible  for  students  to  make  designs  for  the  market 
while  in  school. 

All  of  the  establishment  represent- 

Museum  atives  feel  that  museum  collections 

Collections  are  an  important  means  of  education 

and  source  of  inspiration  to  designers, 

and  might  be  made  even  more  so  were  collections  of  costumes 

and  headgear  included.  Four  representatives  state  that  in 

such  case  the  specimens  should  be  originals,  the  other  three 

state  that  while  originals  are  preferable,  good  reproductions 

are  also  valuable.  Five  believe  that  present-day  products 

should  be  included  in  the  collections,  while  two  do  not.  The 

opinion  is  generally  expressed  that  the  museums  in  Greater 


40  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

New  York  are  a  source  of  much  inspiration  to  millinery  de- 
signers. One  representative  states,  however,  that  when  the 
museums  of  France  are  considered,  one  realizes  that  the  New 
York  museums  are  not  entirely  fulfilling  the  need  in  this  direc- 
tion. All  believe  that  museums  should  be  open  in  the  evening. 

The  conditions  in  the  millinery  indus- 
SuMMARY  try  seem  to  render  impracticable  any 

effective  provision  for  training  de- 
signers in  a  day  school.  Girls  who  go  to  millinery  classes  at 
from  fourteen  to  fifteen  years  of  age  can  only  obtain  a  start 
in  the  practical  side  of  the  industry.  They  are  too  young  and 
lack  the  background  of  experience  for  training  in  design. 

It  would  seem  evident  that  the  designer  must  be  evolved 
out  of  the  craft  worker  in  this  industry  by  virtue  of  experi- 
ence and  natural  talent.  The  essential  practical  training  must 
involve  many  phases,  and  necessarily  requires  an  extended 
period  even  under  the  most  favorable  conditions.  In  full 
measure  it  can  apparently  be  given  to  best  advantage  only  in 
commercial  practice. 

Furthermore,  successful  work  in  millinery  design  requires 
a  fair  degree  of  maturity.  Not  only  practical  experience  is 
necessary,  but  a  knowledge  of  different  styles  and  methods 
of  producing  effects  that  can  be  gained  only  through  a  period 
of  some  years  is  essential.  When  these  conditions  are  met 
workers  will  hardly  be  induced  to  turn  aside  for  attendance 
in  a  day  art  school. 

The  situation  would  seem  to  point  to  the  evening  school  as 
the  only  channel  outside  of  commercial  practice  through 
which  the  artistic  training  of  the  designer  can  be  furthered. 
Such  classes  have  as  yet  hardly  been  attempted.  It  is  very 
evident  that  to  be  successful  they  must  be  conducted  by 
thoroughly  competent  persons,  experienced  in  millinery  tech- 
nique and  possessed  of  exceptional  artistic  talent.  Such  a  com- 
bination can  hardly  be  secured  except  through  persons  who 
are  actually  engaged  in  millinery  design  during  the  day  and 
for  such  persons  salaries  proportionate  to  their  earning  power 
must  be  available. 


COSTUMES  41 

WHOLESALE  MILLINERY 

In  wholesale  as  well  as  in  retail  mil- 

Nature  of  the        linery  there  is  a  constant  demand  for 

Demand  for  Designs  novel  designs.  This  demand  is  usually 

brought  to  the  establishments  by  the 
buyers.  Four  or  more  lines  are  made  up  each  year,  and  each 
succeeding  line  draws  on  the  leading  numbers  of  those  pre- 
ceding. In  addition  to  the  variation  of  the  successful  foregoing 
styles,  inspiration  for  new  designs  is  obtained  largely  from 
Paris  models  and  trips  to  Paris. 

Designing  staffs  are  employed  by 

Where  Designs  Are    each   of  the   seven   establishments 

Obtained  studied.  With  the  exception  of  the 

French  models  purchased  by  these 
establishments,  the  designers  are  relied  upon  for  new  designs. 
One  establishment  making  a  high-grade  product  purchases  no 
models  or  designs  in  Paris.  All  the  other  firms  purchase  from 
five  to  thirty-five  per  cent,  of  their  needs  in  that  city.  All  of 
the  establishments,  including  the  one  which  does  not  pur- 
chase French  models,  consider  European  designs  superior  to 
those  produced  in  America.  The  owner  of  the  last-mentioned 
establishment  is  known  for  her  individual  creations,  for  her 
unique  embroideries  and  for  the  attractive  ways  in  which  she 
uses  materials.  She  states  that  if  her  vocation  were  not  so 
much  that  of  an  individual  artist  she  would  use  French  hats, 
for  she  thinks  they  are  far  superior  to  American  designs. 
Another  representative  states  that  the  French  designs  are 
only  superior  in  dress  hats,  and  that  for  tailored  and  sport 
models  the  American  designs  are  best. 

Emphasis  is  placed  upon  actual  manipulation  of  materials 
as  a  source  of  inspiration  for  new  designs.  Fashion  magazines, 
trade  papers  and  museums  are  also  mentioned  by  designers 
as  valuable  sources  of  inspiration. 

In  four  of  the  firms  the  owner  of  the 

How  New  Designs      establishment    defines    the    general 

Are  Defined  character  of  the  style  to  be  followed 

and  makes  suggestions  to  the  head 


42  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

designer  for  new  motives.  The  idea  given  by  the  styler  is  gen- 
erally but  a  suggestion.  This  is  developed  by  the  designer, 
who  selects  the  materials  and  colors,  and  works  up  the  model 
to  present  to  the  styler  for  criticism. 

In  two  establishments  the  styles  are  evolved  by  the  head 
designers.  In  these  cases  the  owners  state  that  it  is  necessary 
for  the  designers  to  confer  with  them  regarding  their  designs 
in  order  to  obtain  the  merchandising  point  of  view. 

In  one  establishment  the  head  designer  supplies  the  new  mo- 
tives andpassesupon  the  finished  product.  This  styler-designer 
states  that  he  obtains  his  inspiration  for  color  combinations 
and  for  designs  to  be  used  in  embroideries  from  old  curio  shops . 
Three  establishment  representatives  state  that  much  of 
their  inspiration  comes  from  Paris  models.  One  of  these  firms 
keeps  a  buyer  in  Paris  all  the  year  round  who  sends  to  them 
the  best  hats  as  they  come  out,  and  keeps  the  office  posted 
through  the  mail  on  all  new  developments.  Other  stylers 
report  that  their  inspiration  is  gained  from  observing  smart 
people  on  the  street,  at  concerts  and  musicales  and  from  new 
materials  and  new  trimmings. 

In  only  two  cases  is  the  success  of  the  design  said  to  depend 
upon  any  one  person.  In  the  majority  of  cases  it  is  felt  to 
depend  both  upon  the  person  who  supplies  the  ideas  and  upon 
the  designer  who  carries  them  out.  All  of  the  persons  corre- 
sponding to  stylers  were  developed  through  practical  expe- 
rience in  the  millinery  business. 

No  cases  were  found  in  the  millinery 

Work  industry  where  the  designs  were  first 

OF  Designers  developed  on  paper.  The  practice  is 

similar  to  that  noted  in  the  study  of 

retail  millinery,  where  the  designers  sit  at  the  head  of  tables 

around  which  are  grouped  the  millinery  workers.  In  large 

establishments  the  head  designer  occupies  a  separate  room 

and  the  assistant  designers  preside  at  the  tables. 

Thirty  designers  are  employed  by  the 

Training  of  seven  wholesale  millinery  establish- 

Designers  ments  that  were  studied.  One  of  these 

designers  was  trained  in  the  trade  in 


COSTUMES  43 

Paris,  the  others  were  all  trained  through  practical  experience 
in  the  millinery  industry  in  the  United  States. 

Very  young  girls  are  taken  into  the  workrooms  of  large  milli- 
nery establishments  and  taught  to  put  in  linings,  to  make  wire 
frames  and  buckram  shapes.  They  are  taught  how  to  take  cor- 
rect measurementsof  these  shapes,  an  experience  the  manufac- 
turers consider  as  most  important  groundwork  for  the  beginner. 
Eight  or  ten  of  these  girls  are  placed  at  a  table  where  a 
designer  or  head  woman  shows  them  just  what  to  do  and 
watches  their  work  very  closely.  When  they  have  mastered 
the  making  of  frames  they  are  sent  to  another  table  where 
under  another  head  workwoman  they  are  taught  to  put  in 
facings  and  make  underbrims. 

From  here  they  are  sent  to  a  table  where  they  obtain  the 
title  of  copyists.  Here  they  are  given  models,  either  those 
evolved  by  the  head  designer  or  imported  French  models, 
which  they  are  required  to  copy  exactly.  After  this  they  are 
promoted  to  be  trimmers  and  are  given  shapes,  either  blocked 
or  hand-made  and  taught  how  to  utilize  to  the  best  advan- 
tage the  trimmings  that  are  supplied. 

After  this  training,  those  who  show  the  most  ability  are 
given  the  opportunity  to  design,  and  when  they  are  considered 
competent  are  allowed  to  go  out  into  the  market  and  purchase 
new  fabrics  and  trimmings. 

Salaries  of  designers  range  from  $2^ 
Remuneration  of       a  week  to  |io,ooo  a  year. The  average 
Designers  salary,  however,  is  said  to  be  about 

I75  a  week. 

When  an  establishment  is  in  need  of 
Demand  for  a  designer,  usually  a  girl  in  the  work- 

Designers  room  who  has  shown  natural  aptitude 

for  originality  is  developed  as  indi- 
cated above.  Advertising  and  recommendations  are  also 
relied  upon  to  secure  designers. 

In  wholesale,  as  well  as  in  retail  millinery,  the  need  is  for 
more  talented  designers  rather  than  for  a  large  number  of 
designers.  The  view  is  uniformly  held  that  the  wholesale 


44  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

millinery  industry  would  be   much   benefited   if  superior 
designers  were  available. 

None  of  the  establishment  represent- 
Training  atives  think  that  designers  can  be  pro- 

Recommended  by       duced  by  the  present  art  schools ;  they 
Establishment         feel  that  capable  designers  must  un- 
Representatives       derstand  the  practical  requirements 
of  the  work  in  every  stage,  and  that 
this  training  can  be  obtained  only  through  experience  in  a 
commercial  establishment.  A  large  majority  of  opinion  in- 
clines to  the  evening  school  as  the  most  practical  way  of 
developing  the  artistic  training  of  designers.  It  is  felt  that  a 
feeling  for  color  and  line  and  sense  of  proportion  should  be 
developed  by  such  training.  One  representative  believes  that 
a  school  of  allied  arts  would  be  desirable  where  a  girl  learning 
the  art  of  making  hats  would  also  be  in  touch  with  those 
studying  hand  embroidery,  the  making  of  ornaments,  or  the 
study  of  textiles.  He  believes  that  knowledge  of  all  these 
things  is  very  desirable  for  the  broadly  equipped  designer. 

Four  of  the  designers  from  whom  in- 

Training  terviews  were  obtained  believe  that 

Recommended  by       the  training  of  designers  for  the  mil- 

Designers  linery  industry  ought  to  be  gained 

entirely  through  practical  experience 

in  establishments,  under  a  good  milliner.  They  state  that 

millinery  schools  are  not  practical  enough  to  be  of  much  value 

and  that  it  is  necessary  to  undo  much  of  the  previous  training 

of  girls  coming  from  art  schools  in  order  to  start  them  right 

for  commercial  work.  One  designer  believes  that  in  the  case 

of  special  workers  who  make  ornaments  or  paint  designs  on 

material  an  art-school  training  is  essential. 

The  other  designers  expressed  the  view  that  if  day  classes 
were  taught  by  practical  and  competent  teachers  they  might 
afford  a  valuable  means  of  training.  They  feel  that  if  students 
in  such  classes  could  be  given  materials  that  were  suitable  it 
might  be  practicable  for  them  to  make  designs  for  the  market 
during  such  training. 


COSTUMES  45 

All  of  the  establishment  representa- 

MusEUM  tives  express  the  opinion  that  muse- 

CoLLECTiONS  eum  collections  are  a  very  important 

feature  in  the  education  of  designers, 

and  that  this  influence  would  be  extended  if  examples  of  both 

historical  and  modern  headdresses  were  included,  either  as 

originals  or  reproductions. 

The  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art  is  mentioned  by  all  the 
representatives  as  being  of  service  in  this  direction,  but  the 
complaint  is  made  that  it  is  rather  inaccessible  for  designers 
to  visit  during  business  hours.  One  also  mentions  the  Museum 
of  Natural  History.  All  believe  that  museums  should  be 
open  in  the  evening. 

The  comments  and  recommendations 
Summary  made  in  the  case  of  retail  millinery 

apply  to  conditions  in  the  wholesale 
trade  with  equal  force. 


TEXTILES 

The  textile  product  in  the  United  States,  according  to  the 
census  of  1914,  represented  a  value  of  $1,574,633,569,  and  the 
value  added  by  manufacture  was  $600,670,828.  The  branches 
of  the  industry  selected  by  the  survey  for  study  as  those  in 
which  the  element  of  design  most  affects  the  value  of  the  prod- 
uct are  printed  and  woven  silk  and  cottons,  cretonnes,  tapes- 
tries, pile  fabrics,  embroideries  and  laces,  carpets  and  rugs,  and 
woolens. 

In  these  various  divisions  the  element  of  design  plays  an 
extremely  varying  role.  In  most  cases,  at  least  in  dress  goods, 
surface  pattern,  involving  design  in  the  ordinary  sense,  is  of 
only  secondary  importance  as  a  selling  factor.  For  the  most 
part  the  appeal  and  value  of  textiles  depend,  first  upon  the 
texture  effect  produced  by  the  weave;  secondly,  upon  the 
general  color  effect;  and  lastly,  upon  the  pattern.  This  state- 
ment does  not  hold  true  of  upholstery  fabrics  or  of  laces  and 
embroideries,  but  it  serves  to  show  the  relative  position 
occupied  by  surface  pattern  design  in  a  large  section  of  the 
industry.  In  dress  fabrics  the  production  of  novel  and  attract- 
ive texture  effects  through  weaving  and  the  nice  adjustment 
of  colors  to  the  taste  of  the  moment  demand  as  much  thought 
and  skill  as  the  production  of  surface  designs.  Such  effects, 
however,  do  not  require  the  services  of  the  designer,  as  he  is 
commonly  termed,  but  are  usually  created  by  the  technical 
expert  at  the  mill. 

A  characteristic  of  the  textile  industry  in  America  is  quan- 
tity production.  All  of  our  silk,  cotton,  and  woolen  goods 
are  woven  in  large  quantities.  Dyeing  and  printing  are  also 
effected  on  a  large  scale  and  many  persons  are,  consequently, 
served  by  the  same  fabric  or  pattern.  There  is  nothing  in  our 
practice  comparable  to  the  custom  in  Europe,  where  small 
quantities  of  decorated  silk  goods  are  often  made  to  the  order 
of  some  customer  in  order  to  secure  an  exclusive  and  distinct- 
ive design. 

Among  the  textiles  employing  surface  designs  to  a  con- 


48  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

siderable  extent  those  which  issue  in  dress  goods  for  women's 
wear  present  a  constant  demand  for  new  and  attractive 
designs.  This  is  to  a  considerable  degree  true  also  of  printed 
cretonnes,  where  the  demand  for  new  effects  is  constant.  In 
other  divisions  of  the  industry,  which  deal  with  upholstery 
textiles,  carpets  and  rugs,  fewer  designs  are  called  for  and 
these  make  larger  use  of  historic  patterns. 


TEXTILES  49 

PRINTED  SILKS 

Printed  silks,  involving  a  high-priced 

Nature  of  Designs     fabric  and  one  used  largely  for  dress 

USED  IN  goods  appealing  to  a  well-to-do  and 

THE  Industry  a  discriminating  class  of  purchasers, 

are  dependent  to  a  high  degree  upon 
quality  and  novelty  of  design.  Weave  and  color  must  show  a 
sensitive  response  to  the  trend  of  fashion.  Pattern  must  also 
follow  this  lead  closely.  The  styles  of  the  costume  industry 
have,  in  this  way,  a  strong  influence  on  the  styles  for  printed 
silks.  A  coming  era  of  loose  coats  and  capes  for  women  pro- 
duces a  strong  activity  in  printed  silks  for  linings.  If  the 
fashion  dictates  blouses  of  sheer  material,  designs  for  crepes 
and  voiles  will  be  in  order.  On  the  other  hand,  a  tendency 
towards  simple  tailor-made  styles  will  reduce  the  consumption 
of  large-pattern  silks  and  call  for  more  subdued  stripes  and 
dots. 

Designs  intended  for  printed  silks,  as  also  for  other  printed 
textiles,  are  less  conditioned  by  the  character  of  the  processes 
of  production  than  is  the  case  of  designs  for  woven  patterns. 
In  the  case  of  designs  for  printing  the  principal  elements  for 
consideration,  outside  the  quality  and  timeliness  of  the 
design,  are  the  size  of  the  design  as  related  to  the  size  of 
roller,  arrangement  for  repeat,  and  the  number  of  colors 
desirable.  The  nature  of  the  fabric  also  has  to  be  considered, 
as  the  resultant  efi^ect  of  a  printed  design  is  largely  influenced 
by  the  surface  texture. 

Before  the  war,  designing  for  the  silk 

Where  Designs       industry  in  this  country  was  in  a  state 

Are  Obtained        of  almost  entire  dependence  on  the 

designs  and  styles  of  Europe.  Trade 
papers  were  full  of  reports  such  as,  "Maison  X  features  for  the 
coming  season  large  floral  designs  on  a  dark  background," 
and  these  reports  formed  an  unwritten  law  for  most  stylers  of 
silks  in  this  country.  The  styler's  main  activity  consisted  in 
devising  ways  of  economic  production  and  adaptation  of  the 


50  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

suggested  type  of  design  to  his  particular  market.  In  most 
cases  designs  were  bought  from  commercial  design  studios  in 
Paris,  but  as  the  majority  of  American  stylers  lacked  the 
courage  to  buy  anything  that  was  not  represented  by  goods  al- 
ready successfully  on  the  market  in  France,  American  textiles 
were  liable  to  be  a  half  or  a  whole  season  behind  the  French  styles . 

In  those  days,  American  establishments  often  employed 
one  or  two  so-called  designers  whose  efforts  consisted  merely 
in  redrawing  these  French  ideas,  either  enlarging  or  reducing 
them  to  the  size  of  American  repeats  or  else  adding  or  sub- 
tracting a  number  of  colors  as  the  case  might  be.  In  addition 
to  designers  employed  in  the  establishments,  there  were  a 
small  number  of  professional  design  studios  which  imported 
and  sold  original  French  designs  and  also  made  variations  of 
these  designs  which  were  offered  to  the  trade ;  firms  using 
only  a  limited  number  of  designs  in  a  year  made  special  use 
of  their  services. 

The  practice  was  also  very  general  on  the  part  of  American 
firms,  and  for  that  matter  is  now,  of  subscribing  to  what  are 
termed  "foreign  sample  collections,"  which  are  small  samples 
of  recently  issued  European  printed  silks  and  other  textiles. 

A  few  years  before  the  war  efforts  were  made  by  a  small 
number  of  American  manufacturers,  producing  high-grade 
silks,  to  develop  in  their  establishments  true  designing  staffs 
which  should  be  able  to  supply  original  ideas  and  designs 
independent  of  the  European  market.  This  effort  was  gener- 
ally assisted  by  the  fact  that  at  this  time  the  methods  of 
printing  silks  in  America  were  greatly  extended  and  improved. 
As  a  consequence,  greater  complexity  and  beauty  of  designs 
for  printed  fabrics  became  possible. 

With  the  breaking  out  of  the  great  war  and  the  increased 
need  for  designs,  professional  design  studios  gained  a  much 
more  important  position  in  the  trade,  both  in  regard  to  the 
quality  and  to  the  quantity  of  work  produced.  The  success  of 
these  combined  influences  is  evidenced  by  the  fact  that  today 
American  printed  silks  are  competing  successfully  with  those 
of  other  countries. 


Printed  silk  in  delicate  coloring  and  strong  line  treatment 


W^^'^A 


X:^ 


Printed  silk  with  ejject  dependent  on  strong  color  spotting 


TEXTILES  51 

In  the  production  of  designs  for  American  printed  silks 
today  the  practice,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  analysis  later  on, 
is  still  divided,  some  few  firms  relying  entirely  upon  European 
designs  while  a  number  of  establishments  that  is  gradually 
increasing,  are  resolutely  devoting  themselves  to  the  produc- 
tion of  designs  by  American  designers,  through  their  own 
staffs,  supplemented  by  purchase  from  commercial  studios 
and  selected  free-lance  designers. 

Of  the  twenty-two  establishments  producing  printed  silks, 
from  which  data  were  obtained,  only  four  now  use  in  their 
output  any  considerable  number  of  designs  purchased  in 
Europe.  Nine  of  the  concerns  interviewed  consider  that 
European  designs  are  superior  to  those  obtainable  in  the 
United  States.  The  majority  subscribe  to  the  foreign  collec- 
tion service. 

Of  the  twenty-two  establishments,  eight  employ  their  own 
designers.  Seven  of  these  manufacture  a  high-grade  product. 
Fourteen  other  establishments  obtain  their  designs  wholly 
from  commercial  studios  or  from  free-lance  designers. 

All  of  the  establishments  consider  that  the  existence  of 
outside  commercial  designers  is  desirable  and  valuable.  They 
cite  as  advantages  that  few  establishments  can  afford  to  em- 
ploy within  the  organization  a  sufficient  number  of  designers 
to  give  the  variety  offered  by  these  outside  sources  of  supply. 
Some  of  the  establishment  representatives  favor  the  product 
of  the  commercial  studios,  some  believe  in  patronizing  a  few 
high-grade  free-lance  designers,  while  a  number  of  others — 
generally  those  not  maintaining  staff  organizations — are  in- 
different to  the  source  from  which  their  designs  are  obtained 
as  long  as  they  are  brought  to  them  in  sufficient  number  and 
variety. 

The  number  of  designs  purchased  yearly  by  each  of  the 
fourteen  firms  relying  entirely  upon  outside  sources  of  supply 
varies  from  fifty  to  five  hundred.  The  prices  paid  vary  from 
^5  to  ^85.   The  most  common  indication  is  from  ^10  to 

It  is  generally  stated  that  but  a  small  proportion  of  the 


52  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

designs  so  profusely  submitted  by  free-lance  designers  are 
acceptable  for  trade  purposes.  Most  of  the  designs  purchased 
from  these  sources  need  some  modification  to  meet  the  re- 
quirements of  production.  This  may  relate  to  the  element  of 
color  or  to  changes  concerned  with  the  technical  limitations 
of  printing. 

In  all  establishments  a  styler  is  em- 
How  New  Designs      ployed  who  in  addition  to  passing  on 
Are  Defined  the  weave,  defines  the  character  and 

motive  of  the  surface  design  to  be 
developed  or  the  selection  of  those  that  are  purchased.  All 
representatives  agreed  that  the  success  of  the  art  policy  of 
the  establishment  rests  largely  upon  this  person.  Only  one 
case  was  found  where  the  styler  had  had  an  art-school  train- 
ing. In  all  the  other  cases  they  had  been  developed  through 
practical  experience  in  various  departments  of  the  business. 

The  eight  establishments  employing 

Training  of  designers  of  their  own  total  forty-six 

Designers  designers.  Thirty-six  of  these  were 

employed  by  the  seven  firms  making 
a  high-grade  product.  Data  were  obtained  in  regard  to  twenty 
six.  Nine  were  trained  in  Europe  and  seventeen  in  the  United 
States.  Of  those  trained  in  Europe  two  were  educated  in  art 
schools,  four  in  textile  schools  and  three  in  design  studios.  Of 
those  trained  in  the  United  States  twelve  were  educated  in 
art  schools  and  five  in  design  studios. 

Four  of  these  firms  make  a  practice  of  employing  beginners 
direct  from  art  schools  in  their  design  department  and  three 
do  not.  No  definite  practice  obtains  as  to  the  minimum  age  at 
which  such  art-school  students  are  admitted  and  very  little 
information  was  obtained  in  regard  to  the  salaries  paid — ^i8 
and  |2o,  however,  were  mentioned  by  one  firm.  There  would 
seem  to  be  no  definite  scheme  of  salary  progression  for  such 
young  persons. 

The  establishments  employing  designers  quite  generally 
express  the  desire  to  stimulate  their  designers  to  further 
development  by  making  provisions  for  them  to  visit  museums, 


TEXTILES  53 

exhibitions,  and  libraries.  It  would  seem  to  be  true,  however, 
that  much  of  this  good  intention  is  dissipated  under  the  pres- 
sure of  commercial  requirements.  Several  representatives 
agree  to  the  importance  of  giving  designers  considerable 
freedom  in  their  work  and  maintaining  cheerful  conditions  in 
the  designing  room,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  they  emphasize 
the  difficulty  of  maintaining  a  separateness  of  attitude  under 
the  usual  conditions  of  production. 

Data  were  obtained  from  eleven  design  studios  that  make 
designs  for  printed  silks.  Certain  of  these  studios  are  operated 
by  designers  under  a  partnership  arrangement  so  that  infor- 
mation was  obtained  concerning  the  training  of  fourteen 
studio  heads.  Five  of  these  received  their  entire  art  training 
in  Europe,  in  art  or  technical  schools  or  artists'  studios.  Two 
others,  in  addition  to  training  in  an  artist's  studio  abroad, 
attended  art  schools  in  the  United  States.  Six  were  trained 
wholly  in  the  United  States — two  in  art  schools,  two  through 
practical  work  and  evening  art-school  instruction,  and  two 
in  design  studios.  One  other  studied  abroad  in  an  art  school 
after  an  art-school  experience  in  the  United  States. 

Three  of  the  studios  do  not  employ  a  staff  of  designers.  The 
other  eight  employ  a  total  of  107  designers.  Of  these,  twelve 
were  trained  in  Europe,  nine  in  art  schools  and  three  in  design 
studios.  Of  the  ninety-five  designers  trained  in  the  United 
States  twenty-five  were  trained  wholly  in  design  studios, 
fifty-one  in  design  studios  and  in  evening  art  schools,  and 
nineteen  attended  day  art  schools. 

Of  the  twelve  records  of  free-lance  designers  working  for  silk 
establishments,  three  indicate  training  in  Europe  and  nine  in  the 
United  States.  Of  those  coming  from  Europe  one  was  trained 
in  an  English  art  school,  one  in  German  industrial  art  schools, 
and  one  in  a  French  studio.  All  of  those  trained  in  the  United 
States  have  taken  more-or-less  extended  courses  in  art  schools. 

The  remuneration  for  establishment 

Remuneration  of       designers  runs  from  ^25  to  ^75  per 

Designers  week,  the  indication  commonly  given 

being  from  $35  to  ^50.  Little  light  was 


54  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

obtainable  as  to  the  maximum  salaries  paid  designers.  Three 
answers  given  were  $2,500,  $3,750  and  $5,000. 

A  majority  of  the  representatives  in- 
Demand  for  terviewed,  emphasized  the  opinion 

Designers  that  the  industry  stands  much  in  need 

of  a  comparatively  small  number  of 
highly  trained  and  talented  designers.  Eight  representatives 
report  that  the  business  of  their  individual  establishments 
would  be  expanded  if  a  larger  supply  of  high-grade  designers 
were  available.  Seven  of  the  establishments  so  reporting  man- 
ufacture a  high-grade  product.  Three  of  the  eight  establish- 
ments employing  designers  considered  that  the  present  meth- 
ods of  supply  afford  a  fairly  satisfactory  opportunity  for 
obtaining  young  persons  of  talent  in  sufficient  numbers  to 
meet  the  needs  of  their  organizations. 

In  regard  to   the  equipment   that 
Training  should   be   developed   by   training, 

Recommended  by       emphasis  is  laid  equally  upon  the 
Establishment         need  for  a  generous  background  of 
Representatives       artistic    culture    and    of    technical 
knowledge  required  for  manufacture. 
On  the  first  side  it  is  pointed  out  that  European  designers  have 
advantage  over  those  in  America  in  the  very  atmosphere  of 
European  life,  with  its  museums,  exhibitions,  theatres,  con- 
certs, etc.,  which  all  contribute  to  stimulating  the  designer's 
artistic  imagination. 

The  question  "Can  a  satisfactory  and  effective  training  for 
beginning  work  in  the  design  department  be  secured  solely 
through  art  schools  to  which  young  persons  go  for  several 
years  before  obtaining  any  practical  contact  with  commercial 
work?"  is  answered  by  a  large  majority  in  the  negative  with 
the  almost  uniform  statement  that  students  coming  from  such 
schools  lack  the  technical  knowledge  necessary  for  commercial 
work.  The  statement  is  also  made  that  such  training  would 
be  effective  if  the  schools  were  carried  on  in  the  fashion  of  the 
European  art  schools. 
In  three  cases  the  opinion  is  given  that  present  art-school 


Printed  silk  with  conventionalized  scenic  effects 


Printed  silk  with  delicately  naturalistic  flower  effect 


TEXTILES  55 

training  forms  a  fairly  effective  basis  for  the  work  of  the 
designer,  provided  graduates  are  given  helpful  and  sympa- 
thetic instruction  as  to  technical  requirements  in  a  commercial 
organization. 

Practically  uniform  opinion  emphasizes  the  value  of  includ- 
ing craft  work  dealing  with  the  elementary  processes  of  tex- 
tile printing. 

The  same  almost  uniform  expression  of  opinion  emphasizes 
the  value  of  making  a  certain  number  of  designs  for  sale  as  a 
feature  of  school  work.  The  point  is  made,  in  many  cases,  how- 
ever, that  this  work  should  not  take  place  too  early,  but  should 
be  given  in  the  later  period  of  the  school  instruction  and 
that  each  design  offered  for  sale  should  be  approved  by  the 
instructor. 

The  proposition  that  students  might  put  in  a  certain 
amount  of  time  at  regular  intervals  in  the  design  room  of  a 
commercial  establishment  while  in  school  is  uniformly  con- 
sidered as  impracticable. 

Representatives  of  establishments  maintaining  staff  organ- 
izations agree  that  no  system  of  training  can  be  complete  or 
satisfactory  without  a  willingness  on  the  part  of  the  employer 
to  admit  young  persons  into  the  design  department  and 
assume  responsibility  for  their  further  development. 

In  the  case  of  certain  establishments  depending  upon  free- 
lance designers,  the  opinion  is  expressed  that  art  schools 
should  duplicate  practical  conditions  and  give  a  complete 
training  for  practical  work.  In  two  cases  representatives  of 
such  establishments  expressed  the  conviction  that  there  is  no 
need  for  the  commercial  establishment  to  undertake  any 
responsibility  in  regard  to  forwarding  the  education  of  young 
designers. 

Not  all  of  the  representatives  gave  definite  opinions  as  to 
the  value  of  evening  classes.  The  majority  of  the  opinions 
expressed  state  that  evening  classes  would  be  helpful  in 
broadening  the  designer's  viewpoint  and  in  giving  him  a  larger 
background  of  artistic  culture.  Only  one  expressed  the  view 
that  technical  instruction  should  be  given  in  evening  classes. 


56  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

Nine  of  the  thirteen  establishment 
Training  designers  interviewed  emphasized  the 

Recommended  by       need  for  a  fundamental  training  in 
Designers  art  followed  by  a  specialized  course 

in  some  particular  field  of  design 
presided  over  by  an  instructor  thoroughly  competent  in  his 
knowledge  of  commercial  requirements.  They  all  feel  that  the 
instruction  should  reach  the  point  where  practical  commercial 
designs  are  produced. 

Ten  studio  directors  expressed  views  on  the  training  desir- 
able for  designers  in  this  field.  Of  these,  eight  were  of  the 
opinion  that  study  in  a  day  art  school  which  should  first  pro- 
vide instruction  in  drawing  and  color,  including  studies  from 
nature,  conventionalization,  composition  and  period  orna- 
ment, followed  by  specialized  work  in  textile  design  offers 
the  best  foundation.  Six  stated  that  the  course  would  require 
about  four  years.  Two  were  of  the  opinion  that  the  first 
training  in  drawing  and  color  should  be  obtained  in  a  high- 
school  and  that  the  subsequent  art-school  training  might  be 
compassed  in  two  years. 

All  emphasize  the  conviction  that  the  special  instruction 
in  textile  design  should  be  given  by  a  person  of  high  ability 
as  a  designer  and  one  thoroughly  conversant  with  the  tech- 
nical and  market  requirements  in  this  field.  They  stated  that 
the  salary  for  such  an  instructor  should  be  at  least  $7,500  a 
year  for  full  time.  Five  of  these  directors  believe  that  craft  work 
illustrating  textile  printing  processes  should  begiven  in  connec- 
tion with  the  school  training.  Five  believe  that  designs  should 
be  made  for  the  market  by  students  if  their  sale  is  controlled 
by  the  school  and  students  are  not  allowed  to  "peddle"  these 
designs  themselves. 

Two  of  the  directors  expressed  the  belief  that  the  best 
training  can  be  had  in  a  design  studio,  supplemented  by 
instruction  in  evening  art  classes.  Three  others  refer  to  the 
value  of  evening  classes. 

The  ideas  expressed  by  the  twelve  free-lance  designers  in- 
terviewed as  to  school  training,  take  the  following  form :  All 


TEXTILES  57 

believe  that  art-school  training  is  the  desirable  foundation  for 
design  work  in  this  industry;  eleven  believe  that  general  art 
training  should  precede  special  work  in  design,  although  the 
value  of  approaching  the  entire  school  training  from  the 
standpoint  of  composition  and  decoration  is  strongly  em- 
phasized in  several  cases;  nine  believe  that  craft  work  should 
be  an  element  in  the  instruction  for  this  field  of  design;  all 
believe  that  students  should  work  upon  designs  for  the  market 
during  their  school  training  but  that  this  should  be  attempted 
only  in  the  later  stages  of  the  course  and  should  be  controlled 
by  the  school.  Three  to  five  years  is  mentioned  as  the  desir- 
able length  of  school  term.  Three  emphasize  the  desirability 
of  entering  technical  departments  of  productive  establish- 
ments after  the  school  training. 

Almost  uniformly  the  representatives 

Museum  expressed  the  conviction  that  a  mu- 

CoLLECTiONS  seum  containing  extensive  collections 

of  textiles  arranged  historically  would 

constitute  a  very  important  element  in  the  development  of 

artistic  designers.  Two  say  that  such  collections  are  of  no 

importance. 

Expressions  in  regard  to  the  value  of  such  a  museum  are 
as  follows : 

"The  work  along  these  lines  of  the  existing  museums  has 
undoubtedly  been  very  creditable  considering  the  little  en- 
couragement they  have  had.  I  consider  the  value  to  the  trade 
of  a  textile  museum  in  this  city  (New  York)  would  be  far 
greater  than  anyone  can  imagine." 


"We  all  learn  from  observation,  and  if  we  have  such  a 
textile  museum  we  will  have  material  for  observation  which 
would  be  an  inspiration.  If  we  are  to  compete  with  foreign 
markets,  if  we  are  to  keep  ahead  of  the  foreign  designers,  we 
must  have  some  such  inspiration  to  offer  to  our  future  gen- 
erations and  no  better  form  could  be  found  than  a  textile 
museum  that  would  be  open  in  the  evening  even  in  preference 


58  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

to  the  day  time,  to  give  those  who  are  confined  to  their  work 
an  opportunity  of  obtaining  this  wonderful  schooling  and 
inspiration  on  either  evenings  or  Sundays." 


"The  great  opportunity  which  Lyons  and  Paris  have  had 
for  many  years  is  their  opportunity  to  refer  to  records  of 
previous  periods.  If  a  Parisian  styler  feels  that  the  tendency 
is  towards  a  Pompadour  period,  he  can  refer  to  the  records  in 
Paris  and  Lyons,  and  in  this  way  obtain  the  inspiration  of 
original  creations." 

With  few  exceptions  the  opinion  is  expressed  that  such 
collections  should  consist  of  both  originals  and  reproductions 
with  the  emphasis  upon  originals  when  obtainable.  The 
majority  of  those  expressing  opinions  as  to  whether  such  a 
museum  should  provide  for  the  display  of  present-day  artistic 
products  take  the  negative  side. 

Ten  of  those  interviewed  expressed  the  feeling  that  no  ex- 
isting museum  in  Greater  New  York  meets  the  requirements 
of  the  textile  trades.  One  believes  that  the  Metropolitan 
Museum  answers  this  purpose. 

The  majority  of  opinion  was  decidedly  toward  the  opening 
of  such  collections  in  the  evening.  One  statement  is  to  the 
effect  that  such  collections  should  be  open  rather  on  Saturday 
afternoons  and  Sundays  because  of  the  value  of  the  daylight. 

It  would  seem  clear  from  the  above 
Summary  facts  that  the  relation  between  the 

creation  of  designs  and  their  market- 
ing in  the  printed  silks  industry  are  not  such  as  to  tend  surely 
to  a  constant  and  natural  advance  in  artistic  standards.  While 
several  progressive  and  high-grade  establishments  have  de- 
veloped their  own  design  organizations,  such  establishments, 
because  of  the  insistent  demand  for  new  and  fresh  ideas  in 
this  field,  are  always  compelled  to  purchase  a  proportion  of 
their  designs  from  outside  sources. 

The  commercial  studio,  on  the  other  hand,  while  it  has 
reached  in  certain  cases  a  high  development  as  an  organiza- 


Printed  caress  silk,"'The  Stadium" 


TEXTILES  59 

tion,  has  not  reached  a  position  such  as  it  occupies  in  Paris, 
where  it  has  in  a  full  degree  the  confidence  and  patronage  of 
the  trade.  These  conditions  result  in  a  situation  where  the 
work  of  the  free-lance  designer  figures  very  largely,  a  con- 
siderable number,  perhaps  a  majority  of  all  the  firms  studied, 
relying  entirely  upon  this  source  of  supply. 

As  has  been  indicated  above,  a  few  of  these  designers  are  per- 
sons of  liberal  art  training  and  high  order  of  ability.  These 
undoubtedly  exercise  a  beneficial  influence  upon  the  situation. 
The  large  dependence,  on  the  other  hand,  upon  a  considerable 
number  of  only  moderately,  if  not  poorly  equipped  free-lance 
designers  is  not  a  condition  that  makes  for  progress.  With  an 
expensive  material,  calling  constantly  for  novel  and  elegant 
designs,  and  with  this  demand  strongest  in  the  establishments 
manufacturing  the  highest-grade  product,  it  is  very  evident 
that  the  critical  need  is  not  for  a  large  number  of  mediocre 
designers  furnishing  designs  at  small  prices,  but  for  a  few 
highly  trained  and  talented  designers  capable  of  producing 
superior  and  original  creations.  For  such  designs  leaders  in 
the  industry  are  apparently  ready  to  pay  well. 

There  would  seem  to  be  two  problems  presented :  first,  a 
better  coordination  of  design  producing  agencies  with  manu- 
facturing establishments;  second,  more  thorough  and  efficient 
methods  of  training  a  comparatively  few  high-grade  designers. 

Under  the  first  head  it  is  not  clear  whether  economic  con- 
ditions will  allow  much  fiirther  development  of  the  establish- 
ment designing  staflFs.  This  is  a  question  that  only  the  trade 
can  settle.  The  value  of  such  staff^s,  however,  as  a  center 
through  which  individual  effbrt  can  be  expressed  would  seem 
to  be  indisputable. 

The  other  large  possibility  which  would  seem  to  make  for 
progress  is  further  development  and  recognition  of  the  com- 
mercial studio.  Such  development  and  recognition  can,  of 
course,  come  only  through  the  quality  of  product  and  the 
business  integrity  with  which  such  studios  are  administered. 
It  would  seem  to  be  a  fact,  however,  that  outside  of  establish- 
ment organizations  such  studios  offer  the  only  opportunities 


6o  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

either  for  giving  young  people  adequate  technical  instruction 
andguidance  after  leaving  school  or  for  bringing  to  bear  upon  the 
situation  as  a  whole  competent,  expert  knowledge  and  talent. 
As  to  the  problem  of  training  the  superior  designers  needed 
for  the  industry,  it  is  well  to  consider  the  situation  in  New 
York  City  by  itself.  This  city  has  become  the  great  center  of 
textile  designing  in  the  United  States  and  presents  opportu- 
nities for  dealing  with  this  problem  of  training  that  do  not 
exist  in  any  other  place.  Because  of  these  facts  there  would 
seem  to  be  not  only  the  need,  but  room,  for  further  provisions 
than  exist  at  the  present  time  in  the  city  for  training  high- 
grade  designers  for  the  trade.  The  training  most  needed  would 
seem  to  be  one  that  shall  serve  to  carry  a  comparatively  few 
of  the  more  capable  art-school  graduates  beyond  their  present 
equipment  and  which  shall  provide  among  other  things  an 
understanding  of  the  technical  requirements  of  production 
sufficient  to  allow  them  to  interpret  the  styler's  requirements 
effectively.  The  kind  of  organization  in  which  such  a  train- 
ing might  be  effectively  carried  on  will  be  discussed  under 
Provisions  for  Training  Designers  for  Printed  Silks,  Printed 
Cottons  and  Cretonnes  on  page  71. 


TEXTILES  6i 

PRINTED  COTTONS 

Designs  for  printed  cottons  are  sub- 

Nature  of  Designs     ject  for  the  most  part  to  the  same 

USED  IN  considerations  as  prevail  in  the  case 

THE  Industry  of  printed  silks.  Cottons,  being  less 

expensive  than  silks  and  used  by  more 
varied  classes  of  people,  require  greater  range  in  quality  of  de- 
sign. In  cottons,  as  well  as  silks,  weave  and  over-all  color  are  the 
first  consideration,  and  the  relation  of  the  printed  design  to  the 
weave  and  quality  of  the  cloth  is  a  matter  of  first  importance. 
The  trend  of  styles  in  the  cotton  industry  is  influenced  to 
a  great  degree  by  the  silk  industry;  that  is,  the  fashions 
created  by  silks  are,  to  a  large  extent,  carried  into  cottons. 

Of  the  thirteen  establishments  manu- 

Where  Designs  Are    facturing  printed  cottons  from  which 

Obtained  data  were  obtained,  ten  employ  no 

designers,  obtaining  all  their  designs 
from  commercial  studios  or  free-lance  designers.  In  either  of 
these  cases  the  designs  are  brought  to  the  printing  houses  and 
selections  made  by  the  production  manager  or  styler. 

The  average  cotton  converter  purchases  1 50  to  250  designs 
a  year,  paying  from  |io  to  $60  per  design.  The  claim  is  made 
that  this  practice  allows  selection  from  a  larger  variety  of 
patterns  than  by  the  employment  of  one  or  two  staff  de- 
signers. One  firm  reports  spending  $9,000  for  designs  in  1920. 
A  large  proportion  of  these  are  stated  as  being  satisfactory, 
although  the  color  schemes  sometimes  require  change. 

One  firm  purchases  practically  all  of  its  designs  in  Europe. 
Twelve  of  the  firms  report  that  the  inspiration  for  new  de- 
signs comes  largely  from  European  samples.  At  the  same 
time  only  three  representatives  state  that  they  consider 
European  designs  superior  to  those  obtainable  in  the  United 
States.  The  explanation  of  this  seemingly  contradictory  situ- 
ation is  that  foreign  designs  are  considered  generally  to  be  supe- 
rior in  line  and  variety  of  ideas,  but  they  need  to  be  modified 
to  suit  the  American  market. 


6i  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

Nine  of  the  representatives  consider  the  existence  of  de- 
signers outside  the  commercial  establishments  as  desirable. 
Four  answer  in  the  negative.  The  eight  designers  interviewed 
report  that  they  obtain  their  ideas  for  developing  new  designs 
from  foreign  samples,  textiles  collections,  books  containing 
old  textile  designs,  and  from  contact  with  the  dress  and  textile 
styles  exhibited  in  stores  and  on  the  street. 

Suggestions  for  new  styles  are  gen- 
How  New  Designs      erally  brought  to  the  trade  through 
Are  Defined  salesmen,  who  reflect  the  demands 

made  by  the  costume  trade  and  the 
cutting-up  houses. 

In  eight  cases  a  styler  determines  the  character  of  new 
designs  brought  out.  In  other  cases  the  production  manager 
or  member  of  the  firm  selects  the  designs.  Where  the  stylers 
exist,  they  have  almost  universally  been  developed  through 
practical  contact  with  the  business.  In  only  one  case  had  the 
styler  been  educated  in  an  art  school,  that  being  an  industrial 
art  school  in  Switzerland. 

The  three  establishments  employing 
Training  of  designing  staffs  total  thirty  workers. 

Designers  Sixteen  of  these  received  their  train- 

ing abroad  in  French  textile  or  art 
schools.  Fourteen  were  trained  in  the  United  States.  Of  these 
eight  received  their  first  training  in  textile  schools,  one  in  an 
art  school,  and  five  through  experience  in  the  mill. 

In  no  case  was  the  practice  reported  of  employing  beginners 
direct  from  American  art  schools  in  the  design  department. 
In  one  establishment  it  is  the  custom  to  develop  an  office 
boy,  preferably  one  with  a  high-school  training,  into  a  de- 
signer. 

Of  the  eight  designers  from  whom  records  were  obtained, 
six  attended  art  or  textile  schools  either  in  this  country  or 
Europe.  In  one  case  the  designer  served  as  an  apprentice  in 
the  textile  trade  and  obtained  his  art  training  at  an  evening 
school.  Those  educated  in  the  Lowell  School  of  Design  and  in 
European  textile  schools  speak  of  the  practical  instruction 


I  Design  for  printed  silk  developed  by  artist's  arrangement  of 

I  sugar  cubes  and  spheres  under  studied  light  conditions 


Cubistic  design  for  printed  silk 


TEXTILES  63 

in  technical  processes  of  production  as  being  a  valuable  part 
of  their  school  training. 

Many  designers  for  printed  cottons  have  been  trained  in 
commercial  studios  under  a  professional  designer  at  the  head 
who  possessed,  besides  artistic  ability,  an  intimate  knowledge 
of  technical  requirements  of  design  and  a  keen  observation 
of  the  trend  of  fashion.  Such  studios  draw  to  a  considerable 
extent  on  art-school  graduates  for  their  workers. 

The  studios  making  designs  for  printed  silks  also  make 
those  for  printed  cottons  and  the  records  as  to  staff  training 
may  be  found  under  the  former  study. 

For  beginners  $12  to  $18  a  week  are 
Remuneration  of       given  as  wages  paid;  |2,oco  to  $3,500 
Designers  are  reported  as  salaries  paid  designers. 

The  establishments  maintaining  de- 
Demand  for  signing  staffs  and  the  studios  report 

Designers  that  they  are  able  to  obtain  designers 

in  sufficient  numbers  but  that  it  is 
difficult  to  secure  a  high  order  of  talent.  The  other  establish- 
ments report  that  the  commercial  studios  and  free-lance  de- 
signers supply  their  needs  sufficiently  and  satisfactorily. 

The  representative  of  one  firm  feels 
Training  that    a    satisfactory    and    effective 

Recommended  by       training  for  beginning  work  in  the 
Establishment         design  department  can  be  had  solely 
Representatives       through  art  schools  which  do  not  in- 
volve practical  work.  With  this  ex- 
ception all  unite  in  the  opinion  that  art  schools,  as  organized 
today,  do  not  furnish  the  technical  knowledge  necessary  to 
develop  practical  designers.  Ten  believe  that  craft  work  deal- 
ing with  the  elementary  principles  of  printing  and  weaving 
would  be  of  much  value  as  an  element  of  instruction  in  the 
art  schools. 

The  opinion  was  frequently  expressed  that  criticism  and 
suggestions  by  persons  familiar  with  commercial  require- 
ments would  be  of  great  value  in  the  student's  education. 
All  believe  it  desirable  and  feasible  to  have  the  students 


64  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

in  such  schools  make  commercial  designs  for  sale  while  in 
school.  A  number  modify  this  statement  by  saying  that  de- 
signs should  not  be  made  too  early  in  the  course  and  that  such 
designs  should  be  passed  upon  by  the  instructors. 

In  five  cases  the  feeling  was  expressed  that  a  necessary  ele- 
ment in  the  development  of  good  designers  is  willingness  on  the 
part  of  employers  to  admit  young  persons  to  the  design  depart- 
ments and  assume  responsibility  for  their  further  development. 
Only  four  expressed  the  opinion  that  evening  schools  could 
be  of  help  in  this  particular  connection. 

Six  of  the  designers  interviewed  state 
Training  that  the  best  training  for  their  work 

Recommended  by       would  be  obtained  in  an  art  school 
Designers  training  that  specialized  in  its  later 

work  and  produced  commercial  de- 
signs for  the  market.  Two  designers  believe  that  the  best 
equipment  can  be  obtained  through  training  in  a  design 
organization  in  a  commercial  establishment,  accompanied  by 
attendance  upon  evening  school.  Three  state  that  craft  work 
would  be  of  value. 

Views  of  the  studio  directors  concerning  the  training  of 
designers  are  noted  under  the  study  of  printed  silks.  They 
almost  uniformly  favor  study  in  a  day  art  school  as  offering 
the  best  foundation  for  work  in  this  field.  They  believe  that 
the  fundamental  courses  should  be  succeeded  by  specialized 
training  in  designs  for  printed  textiles. 

Twelve  representatives  report  mu- 
MusEUM  seums  with  textile  collections  as  a  very 

Collections  important  element  in  the  development 

of  design.  One  states  that  such  collec- 
tions are  not  so  vital  for  the  cotton  industry  as  for  the  silk. 

Seven  state  that  such  collections  should  be  made  up  of  origi- 
nals wherever  possible;  six  believe  that  reproductions,  photo- 
graphic or  otherwise,  are  of  great  value.  Twelve  report  that 
present-day  products  should  have  a  place  in  such  collections. 
Ten  express  the  opinion  that  no  existing  museum  in  Greater 
New  York  entirely  fulfills  the  needs  of  the  industry,  and  four 


TEXTILES  65 

that  the  Metropolitan  Museum  and  the  Museum  of  Natural 
History  perform  an  important  service  in  this  direction. 

Twelve  believe  that  such  museums  should  be  open  in  the 
evening,  and  two  feel  they  should  also  be  open  on  Sunday. 

Designs  for  printed  cottons  at  the  pres- 
SuMMARY  ent  time  are  very  evidently  dependent 

to  a  large  extent  upon  French  inspira- 
tion. The  patterns  that  today  issue  in  American  printed  cottons 
are  very  generally  modifications  of  designs  originated  in  France. 

The  relation  between  the  creation  of  designs  and  their 
marketing  in  this  industry  is  very  similar  to  that  in  the 
printed  silk  trade.  One  important  firm  employs  an  ample 
force  of  designers  of  which  about  two-thirds  have  received 
sound  artistic  and  technical  training  in  France  and  one-third 
of  which  has  been  trained  in  art  or  technical  schools  in  the 
United  States.  With  only  two  exceptions,  the  remainder  of 
the  producing  and  converting  establishments  depend  upon 
studios  and  free-lance  artists  for  their  designs. 

There  would  seem  to  be  more  reliance  upon  well-equipped 
commercial  studios  in  this  industry  than  in  that  of  printed 
silks.  The  more-or-less  hand-to-mouth  dependence  upon  the 
free-lance  designer  is,  nevertheless,  very  prevalent.  Designs 
from  this  latter  source  have  generally  to  be  modified,  and 
often  receive  such  modification  in  the  commercial  studios. 
The  limitations  of  such  a  system  have  already  been  noted. 
On  the  one  hand,  it  carries  no  guarantee  of  progressive  artistic 
standards;  on  the  other,  it  lacks  provisions  for  developing 
our  young  art-school  graduates  to  the  point  of  real  efficiency 
and  it  involves  great  waste  of  artistic  talent. 

The  need  of  the  situation  would  seem  to  be  very  similar  to 
that  in  the  field  of  printed  silks,  namely,  for  a  method  of  de- 
veloping a  relatively  few  skilled  and  broadly  cultured  designers 
who  can  be  counted  upon  to  develop  designs  equal  to  those  pro- 
duced in  France.  Such  designers  are  evidently  not  produced  in 
the  present  art  schools,  and  there  would  seem  to  be  a  similar 
need  and  opportunity  for  the  training  of  such  designers  in  the 
city  of  New  York  as  is  represented  in  the  field  of  printed  silks. 


66  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

CRETONNES 

The   cretonne   industry   exhibits    a 
Nature  of  Designs     Hvely  demand  for  new  designs,  as  the 
USED  IN  call  for  new  effects  in  these  fabrics  is 

THE  Industry  constant.  In  cretonne  designs  color 

is  of  prime  importance,  as  these  fab- 
rics are  generally  used  for  hangings  or  coverings  as  part  of  a 
general  scheme  of  room  decoration.  Because  of  this  fact, 
designs  for  such  goods  make  considerable  use  of  period  mo- 
tives. Larger  effects  are  used  than  is  the  case  with  dress  goods, 
and  drawing,  consequently,  becomes  more  important. 

Of  the  nine  establishments  studied, 
Where  Designs  Are    five   employ   designing   staffs.   The 
Obtained  other  establishments  purchase  their 

designs  from  Europe  or  from  com- 
mercial studios  or  free-lance  artists  in  this  country.  The 
practice  of  subscribing  to  foreign  sample  collections  is  very 
general.  Three  representatives  consider  that  European  designs 
are  superior  to  those  obtainable  in  this  country,  while  six 
answer  this  question  in  the  negative. 

One  firm  reports  having  formerly  employed  three  designers, 
but  found  that  their  output  became  too  narrow  after  a  short 
time,  and  that  after  a  few  years  the  work  produced  was  very 
limited  in  variety.  They  therefore  abandoned  their  own  de- 
sign department  and  since  purchase  their  designs  outside. 

Four  establishments  purchase  all  their  designs  from  commer- 
cial studios  or  free-lance  artists  in  this  country.  The  number 
purchased  by  different  establishments  runs  from  sixty  to  200  a 
year.  The  prices  paid  are  reported  as  $25  to  |6o  for  each  design. 
Four  of  the  establishments  consider  the  existence  of  de- 
signers outside  of  the  commercial  establishments  as  desirable, 
the  great  variety  of  designs  submitted  in  this  way  and  the 
opportunity  for  selection  being  great  advantages  from  the 
standpoint  of  the  manufacturer. 

Books,  museums,  and  nature  study,  are  the  principal 
elements  noted  as  sources  of  inspiration  for  designs. 


■^ 
3 


-     "^ 


TEXTILES  67 

In  each  case  a  styler  gives  the  key 
How  New  Designs      for  new  design  motives  and  upon  this 
Are  Defined  person  depends,  to  a  very  large  ex- 

tent, as  in  the  other  textile  trades,  the 
quality  of  the  design  output  of  the  establishment.  The  styler, 
in  each  case,  is  reported  as  being  developed  through  practical 
experience  in  the  business. 

The  five  establishments  maintaining 

Training  of  designing  staffs  of  their  own  employ 

Designers  a  total  of  nineteen  designers,  of  whom 

fourteen  were  trained  in  art  schools 

and  three  in  textile  schools  in  the  United  States  and  two  in 

European  art  schools.  One  firm  is  in  the  habit  of  giving  its 

designers  one  free  day  a  week  to  visit  museums  and  to  seek 

other  sources  of  inspiration. 

Eight  of  the  eleven  free-lance  designers  for  this  trade  were 
trained  in  art  schools  in  the  United  States;  one  studied  in  a 
technical  art  school  in  Paris  and  later  attended  evening 
classes  in  an  art  school  in  the  United  States;  one  was  trained 
in  a  technical  art  school  in  Ireland;  and  one  was  trained  in 
technical  art  schools  in  Switzerland,  Germany  and  England. 
Lack  of  artistic  culture  and  lack  of  knowledge  in  regard  to 
technical  processes  are  cited  as  weaknesses  in  the  free-lance 
designers. 

Data  were  obtained  from  twelve  directors  of  studios  that 
make  designs  for  cretonnes.  Six  of  these  were  trained  wholly 
or  in  part  in  Europe,  either  in  art  schools  or  in  studios;  six 
were  trained  wholly  in  the  United  States,  two  in  day  art 
schools  and  four  in  design  studios.  Of  the  latter,  two  had 
evening  art-school  instruction. 

One  hundred  and  nine  designers  were  employed  by  the  nine 
studios  represented.  Ninety-five  of  these  were  trained  wholly 
in  the  United  States,  nineteen  in  day  art  schools  and  seventy- 
seven  in  design  studios.  Of  the  latter  number  fifty-two  had 
evening  art-school  instruction.  Thirteen  of  these  designers 
were  trained  in  Europe,  ten  in  day  art  schools  and  three  in 
design  studios. 


68  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

Salaries  reported  vary  from  $600  to 
Remuneration  of      $1,000   per   year   for   beginners   to 
Designers  $6,000  for  a  head  designer. 

Two   establishment   representatives 
Demand  for  report  that  the  business  of  their  indi- 

Designers  vidual  concerns  would  be  expanded 

if  a  larger  supply  of  high-grade  de- 
signers was  available. 

A  majority  state  that  the  methods  of  training  at  the  present 
time  do  not  afford  an  adequate  supply  of  well-equipped  young 
persons  to  enter  this  field. 

Five   establishment    representatives 
Training  report  that  art  schools,  as  they  exist 

Recommended  by       today,  do  not  effectively  train  design- 
Establishment         ers  to  begin  work  in  the  design  depart- 
Representatives       ment.  They  state  that  the  training 
given  today  is  only  a  foundation  to 
which  practical  instruction  should  be  added  to  make  success- 
ful designers.  They  express  the  opinion  that  the  elements  of 
craft  work  would  be  valuable  as  a  feature  of  instruction  in 
art  schools  in  connection  with  instruction  in  cretonne  de- 
sign- 
Five  of  the  establishment  representatives  believe  that  the 
school  work  should  be  carried  to  the  point  of  making  designs 
for  the  trade,  but  that  this  work  should  be  carefully  super- 
vised and  passed  upon  by  the  instructor. 

One  is  of  the  opinion  that  the  best  preparation  would  be 
obtained  by  training  in  an  art  school,  followed  by  an  ap- 
prenticeship in  a  well-established  design  studio. 

Opinions  in  regard  to  training  gath- 

Training  ered  from  designers,  both  staff  and 

Recommended  by       free-lance,  place  the  emphasis  up)on 

Designers  broad  art -school  training  followed 

by  specialized  instruction.  Two  to 

five  years  are  stated  as  the  desirable  length  of  time  for  school 

instruction. 

Drawing  from  nature,  conventionalization,  and  historic 


TEXTILES  69 

design  are  the  elements  emphasized  as  of  most  value.  The 
majority  of  the  designers  believe  that  craft  work  should  be 
a  feature  of  the  instruction. 

All  emphasize  the  value  of  working  upon  designs  for  the 
market  during  the  later  stages  of  the  school  training. 

The  belief,  in  three  cases,  is  expressed  that  evening  classes 
would  be  of  assistance  in  the  further  development  of  de- 
signers. 

All  representatives  report  that  muse- 
MusEUM  ums  with  textile  collections  are  very 

Collections  important.  These  collections,  in  their 

judgment,  should  be  made  up  of  both 
original  specimens  and  reproductions.  All  believe  that  such 
collections  should  contain  present-day  products.  The  Metro- 
politan Museum  and  the  Museum  of  the  Brooklyn  Institute 
of  Arts  and  Sciences  are  stated,  in  two  cases,  to  meet  the  needs 
of  the  trade  to  some  extent.  One  speaks  particularly  of  the 
helpful  work  done  by  the  Boston  Art  Museum  in  their  textile 
department. 

A  larger  attempt  is  apparently  being 
Summary  made  to  develop  American  designers 

for  printed  cretonnes  than  in  the  case 
of  other  printed  fabrics.  A  considerable  number  of  the  more 
important  producing  establishments  employ  designing  staffs 
composed  largely  of  persons  trained  in  art  schools  in  the 
United  States.  The  design  studios  furnishing  designs  for  this 
trade  are  also  mainly  composedof  American-trained  designers. 

The  industry  still  depends,  however,  for  a  considerable 
proportion  of  its  designs  upon  free-lance  artists.  Many  of  the 
considerations  noted  in  regard  to  this  practice  in  the  discussion 
of  printed  silks  and  printed  cottons  apply  also  to  this  field. 

The  regular  training  furnished  by  art  schools,  because  of 
the  nature  of  the  designs  and  the  small  dependence  upon  the 
movements  of  fashion,  apparently  meets  the  requirements  of 
this  industry  more  fully  than  in  the  case  of  printed  silks  and 
printed  cottons. 

It  would  seem  to  be  a  fact  that  if  provisions  are  established 


yo  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

in  New  York  City  for  training  high-grade  designers  for  the 
printed  silk  and  cotton  trades,  that  such  provisions  could 
well  include,  as  a  minor  element,  the  training  of  designers 
for  cretonnes. 


Printed  cretonnes  in  which  realistic  treatment  is  avoided 
and  effects  gained  through  flat  color  treatment 


TEXTILES  71 

PROVISIONS  FOR  TRAINING  DESIGNERS  FOR 

PRINTED  SILKS,  PRINTED  COTTONS,  AND 

CRETONNES 

SUGGESTED  FOR  NEW  YORK  CITY 

As  has  been  pointed  out  in  the  studies  of  the  above  indus- 
tries, there  would  seem  to  be  a  real  need  for  some  provision 
that  will  carry  the  design  training  of  a  comparatively  few  tal- 
ented students  beyond  the  instruction  afforded  in  the  present 
schools  of  applied  art  in  New  York  City.  Such  provisions 
could  conceivably  be  developed  in  one  of  the  following  ways: 
(a)  in  the  present  schools;  (b)  in  a  new  school  supported  by 
the  state;  (c)  in  a  school  supported  by  the  municipality;  (d)  in 
a  school  supported  by  the  trade;  (e)  in  a  combination  of  these 
agencies. 

(a)  The  objection  to  this  proposition  is,  that  the  numbers 
liable  to  be  found  in  any  one  school  desiring  such  specialized 
instruction  would  probably  be  too  small  to  warrant  the 
expenditure  of  time  and  money  required  for  thoroughly 
high-grade  teaching.  The  equipment  desirable  to  make  such 
instruction  thoroughly  competent  on  the  technical  side  would 
require  a  considerable  outlay  and  even  were  sizable  classes 
available  the  salary  for  a  competent  instructor  is  a  very  large 
burden  for  any  such  school  to  assume.  To  expect  these  schools 
to  develop  further  specialized  instruction  with  its  require- 
ments of  expensive  instructors  and,  possibly,  of  equipment, 
would  hardly  seem  warranted. 

(b)  The  question  of  a  school  under  state  auspices  is  con- 
sidered here  because  such  a  school  has  been  mentioned  in  the 
plans  of  the  State  Department  of  Education.  Standing  by 
itself,  a  school  of  this  kind,  although  it  might  bring  liberal 
possibilities  in  the  way  of  equipment  and  housing,  would 
hardly  be  in  a  position,  when  the  grade  of  state  school  salaries 
is  taken  into  account,  to  offer  remuneration  adequate  for  in- 
structors competent  to  deal  effectively  with  this  particular 
situation.  On  the  other  hand  the  need  represented  by  this 
special  case  does  not  warrant  by  itself  the  organization  of 


72  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

an  entire  school.  Unless  intimately  associated  with  advisory 
guidance  and  support  on  the  part  of  the  industries,  a  state 
school  would  apparently  add  little  to  the  situation  repre- 
sented by  the  present  institutions. 

(c)  The  question  of  a  municipally  supported  industrial  art 
school  in  New  York  City  is  one  that  deserves  serious  con- 
sideration. In  this  great  center  of  design  related  to  industries 
involving  on  the  whole  vast  expenditures  it  would  seem  to  be 
a  legitimate  and  desirable  educational  provision  and  one 
warranting  the  expenditure  of  taxpayers'  money.  On  the 
other  hand,  such  a  school  in  this  connection  would  face  the 
limitations  noted  above  in  the  case  of  a  state  school. 

(d)  In  many  ways  a  school  supported  by  the  industries  re- 
presents the  most  practical  solution  of  the  problem,  yet  in 
this  connection  there  are  grave  difficulties  that  should  not  be 
underestimated.  First  is  the  difficulty  of  concerted  organiza- 
tion in  regard  to  the  support  of  such  a  school,  involving  as 
it  does  the  expense  of  quarters  and  equipment  and  the  salaries 
of  instructors.  Lack  of  assured  permanence  of  such  an  organ- 
ization is  also  one  of  the  serious  questions  involved.  There 
are  undoubtedly  further  questions  of  an  important  nature, 
among  which  is  the  danger  that  instruction  in  such  a  school 
would  be  bent  toward  merely  temporary  trade  needs  rather 
than  towards  a  larger  vision  of  artistic  ideals. 

(e)  In  many  ways  the  most  practical  solution  of  the  prob- 
lem of  training  needed  in  the  fields  of  printed  silks,  cottons, 
and  cretonnes,  would  seem  to  lie  in  cooperation  between  a 
school  already  established  and  the  trades  concerned.  Could 
the  quarters  be  provided  for  instruction  in  such  a  school  and 
the  salaries  of  the  teaching  staff  met  by  the  trade,  a  practical 
combination  might  be  achieved. 

In  this  connection  it  should  be  noted  that  in  191 9  the 
Board  of  Education  of  New  York  City,  acting  on  the  recom- 
mendation of  associated  textile  manufacturers,  established  a 
city  textile  high-school.  Machinery  and  apparatus  totaling 
a  value  of  over  $75,000  were  donated  by  these  associations 
to  the  school.  The  school  devotes  its  main  energies  to  training 


TEXTILES  73 

technical  workers  for  the  textile  trades,  but  also  affords  in- 
struction in  textile  design  of  a  somewhat  elementary  character. 

It  might  be  possible  that  quarters  could  be  secured  in  this 
school  for  the  conduct  of  advanced  instruction  in  textile 
design.  One  obvious  advantage  of  such  an  arrangement  would 
be  the  availability  of  the  extensive  equipment  of  textile 
machinery  possessed  by  the  school  and  the  possibility  of 
instruction  dealing  with  technical  processes. 

Although  the  need  for  understanding  of  technical  processes 
on  the  part  of  designers  for  printed  textiles  is  not  extensive 
there  is  certain  fundamental  knowledge  which  is  of  much 
importance  to  the  effective  approach  towards  the  design 
problem.  In  the  case  of  printed  textiles  this  comprehends 
acquaintance  with  the  various  materials  and  weaves  with 
special  consideration  of  their  relation  to  applied  color,  the 
methods  of  textile  printing  and  dyeing,  and  the  elements  of 
the  chemistry  of  printing  and  dyeing,  with  special  relation 
to  the  color  effects  obtainable  in  printing.  For  those  studying 
woven  pattern  design  there  is  needed  a  knowledge  of  the 
principles  of  Jacquard  weaving  and  the  extent  to  which  the 
design  is  affected  by  this  process.  Opportunities  for  such 
courses  could  probably  be  obtained  at  the  textile  school. 

More  important  than  the  mere  machinery  of  organization 
and  equipment  of  such  a  school  is  the  nature  of  the  student 
body  and  the  method  of  work  to  be  pursued.  Mere  establish- 
ment of  another  school  or  class  in  this  field  is  not  in  itself 
of  great  significance.  The  success  of  such  a  venture  would 
depend  entirely  upon  the  character  of  work  developed. 

The  solution  of  this  particular  problem  would  seem  to  lie 
in  the  development  of  a  special  school  or  class  devoting  its 
entire  attention  to  the  training  of  textile  designers.  To  secure 
the  best  results  it  would  seem  essential  that  such  a  school 
should  organize  its  instruction  on  the  basis  of  advanced  or 
graduate  work  and  should  require  a  broad  art  training  for 
admission.  Its  instruction  should  be  intensive  and  concen- 
trated. The  training  afforded  should  not  only  offer  the  benefits 
of  specialization,  but  should  give  the  advantage  of  many- 


74  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

sided  contact  with  the  various  requirements  of  the  whole 
textile  trade. 

Two  elements  demand  chief  consideration.  First,  is  the  eco- 
nomic, which  means  that  few  students  can  afford  to  extend 
their  training  beyond  that  of  the  regular  art  school  into 
another  period  of  non-remunerative  education.  Such  a  plan 
should  consequently  provide,  either  through  scholarships 
offered  by  the  industries,  or  through  opportunities  for  remu- 
nerative work  in  the  courses  of  instruction,  some  possibili- 
ties of  at  least  partial  support  to  the  students.  Second,  is  the 
fact  that  very  special  methods  of  instruction  are  essential  to 
secure  the  results  desired.  It  is  evident  that  the  training 
should  be  conducted  in  an  atmosphere  which  will  give,  as 
far  as  possible,  all  that  the  trade  needs  and  at  the  same  time 
conserve  artistic  ideals. 

The  conditions  most  desirable  to  establish  are  those  which 
approach  closely  to  the  situation  in  a  design  studio  with  a 
high  quality  of  guidance,  both  artistic  and  commercial,  and 
where  education  making  toward  higher  and  finer  standards 
can  be  gained  while  engaging  in  productive  work.  This  latter 
provision  is  considered  of  essential  importance  in  meeting 
both  the  educational  and  the  economic  needs  of  the  situation. 
There  would  seem  to  be  no  question  that  such  a  special  school 
could  bring  its  instruction  to  the  point  where  students  are 
able  to  produce  designs  that  are  thoroughly  usable  for  com- 
mercial purposes  and  command  a  commercial  value. 

The  best  practice  of  the  vocational  schools  of  the  country 
for  a  number  of  years  past  has  been  based  upon  the  principle 
that  only  through  the  production  of  commercial  work  can 
trade  instruction  be  made  thoroughly  efficient  and  the  re- 
quirements of  actual  practice  be  brought  home  to  the  stu- 
dents. The  same  arguments  would  seem  to  apply,  with  even 
greater  force,  to  the  training  of  designers,  and  inasmuch  as 
the  only  competent  test  of  fulfilling  commercial  requirements 
is  the  salability  of  the  product,  it  would  seem  to  be  very  de- 
sirable that  the  practice  at  least  in  a  limited  degree  of  making 
designs  for  the  market  should  be  developed  in  such  schools. 


TEXTILES  75 

To  devise  means  for  support  and  to  supervise  and  direct 
instruction  under  such  a  plan,  a  trade  committee  representa- 
tive of  the  printed-textile  industries  and  consisting  of  persons 
intimately  associated  with  the  problem  of  design  would  be 
necessary.  Upon  such  a  committee  would  devolve  the  con- 
tractual relations  with  the  authorities,  of  the  school  elected, 
the  financial  problems  involved,  conditions  as  to  selection  and 
admission  of  students,  plan  of  instruction  to  be  pursued  and 
methods  by  which  intimate  relations  with  the  industries  could 
be  maintained  and  a  certain  amount  of  the  product  of  the 
school  assured  of  sale. 


76  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

WOVEN  PATTERN  SILKS 

Silks,  in  which  the  element  of  woven 

Nature  of  Designs     pattern   is   the  distinctive   feature, 

USED  IN  may  be  classified  for  the  purposes  of 

THE  Industry         this  study  into  those  in  which  the 

effect  is  gained  through  varied  warp 

and  woof  produced  in  ordinary  looms  and  silks  woven  in 

Jacquard  looms.  Both  represent  wide  scope  for  design.  Woven 

pattern  silks  represent  a  field  in  which  the  technical  conditions 

of  manufacture  impose  very  exacting  requirements  as  to  the 

character  or  at  least  the  rendering  of  the  design.  Such  silks 

are  used  for  both  dress  goods  and  upholstery  fabrics.  When 

fashion  makes  the  demand,  variety  and  novelty  are  called  for  in 

the  first  class  of  goods  in  much  the  same  way  as  in  printed  silks. 

In  the  second  class  change  in  patterns  is  much  more  gradual. 

In  the  development  of  designs  for  the  Jacquard  loom,  a 
first  design  is  generally  made,  showing  simply  the  color  and 
pattern.  This  is  then  translated  into  a  working  design  on 
squared  paper,  which  goes  to  the  card  cutter.  In  some  cases 
the  first  design  is  made  by  the  designer  on  the  office  staff  and 
the  second  design  is  made  at  the  mill.  In  other  cases  both 
designs  are  made  by  the  same  person.  For  the  making  of  the 
first  design  no  large  amount  of  technical  knowledge  is  neces- 
sary, although  some  understanding  of  the  requirements  of 
Jacquard  weaving  is  very  desirable.  For  the  making  of  Jac- 
quard working  designs,  however,  knowledge  of  the  processes 
of  production  is  a  prime  necessity. 

In  some  cases,  where  the  amount  of  Jacquard  work  is  quite 
small,  only  a  design  in  water-color  is  made,  which  is  sent 
directly  to  the  card  cutter  at  the  mill  who  himself  makes  the 
necessary  translations  and  cuts  the  cards. 

Of  late  years,  with  the  large  development  of  silk  printing 
and  the  use  of  printed  silks  for  both  dress  goods  and  decora- 
tive fabrics,  the  relative  use  of  brocades  and  other  Jacquard 
woven  silks  has  considerably  decreased.  This  is  a  situation, 
however,  subject  to  change  at  anytime  by  the  dictates  of  fashion . 


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f.^^^\,;v^^lJt 


Woven  upholstery  silk  adapted  from  a  brocade  oj  the  Louis  XIII  period 


TEXTILES  77 

Of  the  seven  establishments  manu- 
Where  Designs  Are  facturing  Jacquard  woven  silks  as  an 
Obtained  important  element  of  their  product, 

from  which  data  were  obtained,  only 
two  employ  designers  for  this  work  within  their  own  organiza- 
tions. In  the  other  cases  designs  are  purchased  from  outside 
designers,  mainly  from  designing  studios  situated  either  in 
New  York  City  or  Paterson,  New  Jersey. 

The  number  of  designs  purchased  from  outside  sources  by 
different  establishments,  including  those  for  ribbons  and 
neckwear,  varies  from  fifty  to  five  hundred  a  year.  The 
prices  paid  for  these  designs  is  said  to  range  from  |io  to  ^40. 
The  average  price  reported  by  the  Paterson  studios  is  $2S- 
The  Textile  Designers'  Association  of  Paterson  have  a  mini- 
mum rate  for  dress  goods,  linings  and  ribbons  of  four  and 
one-half  cents  a  line  for  the  finished  Jacquard  design. 

Only  two  establishments  report  the  purchase  of  any  con- 
siderable proportion  of  their  designs  from  Europe.  In  three 
cases  the  European  designs  are  reported  as  superior  in  technical 
execution  and  understanding  of  the  requirements  of  produc- 
tion to  those  developed  in  the  United  States.  Direct  purchase 
of  designs  from  Europe  is  reported  as  diminishing,  but  it  is 
evident  that  this  particular  field  of  design  is  still  very  much 
dependent  upon  the  influence  of  Europe  and,  as  will  be  noted 
later  on,  the  large  majority  of  those  who  are  producing  de- 
signs in  this  field  have  had  European  training. 

The  existence  of  commercial  studios,  also  called  public 
designers,  is  favored  by  all  establishments.  Under  the  present 
conditions  the  existence  of  such  studios  is  regarded  by  most 
producing  concerns  as  the  most  economical  method  of  secur- 
ing designs  and  one  giving  the  advantage  of  selection.  In 
most  cases  designs  are  submitted  by  the  studios  in  sketch 
form  and  are  carried  on  to  Jacquard  paper  only  after  accept- 
ance. A  certain  amount  of  direct-order  work  is  done  by  the 
studios  and,  in  the  case  of  one  studio,  practically  no  other 
work  is  done. 

Two  of  the  Paterson  studios  report  dependence  upon 


78  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

European  samples  for  the  large  part  of  their  motives.  The 
other  two  use  European  examples  only  to  a  small  extent  and 
depend  upon  museum  material,  books  and  direct  study  of 
floral  forms  in  nature.  As  a  whole,  it  is  evident  that  the  de- 
signs made  for  dress  goods  look  to  Europe  to  a  large  extent 
for  inspiration,  while  those  intended  for  upholstery  fabrics 
obtain  their  suggestions  mainly  from  textile  collections  and 
printed  documents. 

In  each  case  the  character  and  scheme 
How  New  Designs       of  new  designs  is  determined  by  a 
Are  Defined  styler  within  the  establishment,  upon 

whom  the  success  of  the  art  product 
largely  depends.  In  all  cases  the  styler  is  reported  as  having 
been  developed  through  experience  in  the  business,  with  no 
art-school  training. 

The  number  of  designers  represented 
Work  of  Designers  by  the  two  staff  organizations  con- 
cerned directly  with  woven-pattern 
designs  number  from  seven  to  ten,  according  to  the  fluctu- 
ation of  demand.  With  one  exception  noted  below,  these  de- 
signers are  engaged  upon  Jacquard  working  designs  and  are 
located  at  the  mill. 

In  the  case  of  one  establishment  the  original  design  is  made 
in  the  New  York  office,  by  a  designer  trained  in  commercial 
studios  in  France,  and  is  sent  to  the  mill  where  it  is  translated 
on  to  Jacquard  paper  by  a  design  stafi^  under  the  supervision 
of  a  foreman  trained  in  the  Textile  School  at  Lyons.  In  the 
other  establishments  the  designers  are  located  at  the  mill  and 
the  same  designer  who  makes  the  sketch  design  translates  it  on 
to  the  Jacquard  paper.  In  each  case  all  those  performing  im- 
portant work  either  in  the  inception  of  the  design  or  carry- 
ing it  into  Jacquard  form  were  trained  in  France. 

The  four  commercial  studios  in  Pat- 

Training  of  erson  that  were  studied  are  directed 

Designers  by  men  from  forty-five  to  sixty-five 

years  of  age.  One  of  these  received 

his  training  in  an  art  school  while  serving  an  apprenticeship 


TEXTILES  79 

in  a  textile  mill  in  England,  one  in  an  art  school  and  a  tech- 
nical school  in  England,  one  in  the  textile  school  at  Crefeld, 
Germany,  and  one  was  developed  in  a  textile  mill  in  the 
United  States. 

Seventeen  designers  are  employed  in  the  four  Paterson 
studios,  fourteen  ofwhomwere  trained  wholly  in  commercial 
practice  in  the  United  States  and  three  of  whom  were  trained 
in  Europe.  Of  the  latter  one  was  developed  in  a  design  studio 
and  two  received  some  instruction  in  textile  schools. 

In  the  four  New  York  studios  making  sketches  for  Jacquard 
designs  there  are  five  persons  who  can  be  counted  as  head 
designers.  Of  these  two  were  trained  in  art  schools  in  Europe, 
one  in  commercial  practice  in  Europe  and  two  in  design 
studios  in  the  United  States. 

Forty-six  designers  are  employed  in  these  studios,  of  whom 
eighteen  were  trained  in  art  schools,  twenty  in  design  studios 
in  the  United  States  and  eight  in  art  schools  abroad. 

Salaries  of  the  foreign-trained  design- 

Remuneration  of      ers  range  from  $2,750  to  $5,000  a 

Designers  year.  The  salaries  of  those  trained  in 

the  United  States,  doing  the  less 

important  work,  range  from  $1,800  to  $2,750. 

In  only  one  case  was  it  reported  that 
Demand  for  the  business  of  the  individual  estab- 

Designers  lishments  would  be  expanded  if  a 

larger  supply  of  high-grade  designers 
were  available.  On  the  other  hand  the  opinion  was  gener- 
ally expressed  that  the  problem  of  finding  competent  de- 
signers for  woven  pattern  silks  is  one  that  is  liable  to  become 
serious  in  the  near  future. 

All  but  two  of  the  establishment  rep- 

Training  resentatives  state  that  an  effective 

Recommended  by      training  for  Jacquard  design  can  only 

Establishment        be  obtained  in  a  school  where  prac- 

Representatives      tical  weaving  is  conducted  or  through 

practical  experience  in  a  textile  mill. 

Four  establishment  representatives  believe  that  a  certain 


8o  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

amount  of  time  at  practical  work  in  commercial  establish- 
ments would  be  very  valuable  as  part  of  the  school  training 
but  would  be  difficult  forpractical  reasons.  Evening  instruction 
does  not  receive   any  particular  support  in  the  replies. 

The  studio  directors  agree  that  from 
Training  two  to  four  years  should  be  spent  in 

Recommended  by       a  textile  school  where  drawing  and 
Designers  design  are  taught  as  well  as  technical 

processes.  Two  of  these  directors  be- 
lieve that  the  training  in  design  should  be  specialized  from  the 
start.  One  believes  that  the  textile  school  should  teach  all 
kinds  of  textile  design.  Another  believes  that  the  high-school 
should  contribute  a  basis  of  artistic  culture  but  should  be 
succeeded  by  experience  in  a  textile  school  and  that  design 
might  well  be  studied  in  the  evening. 

Museums  containing  collections  of 
Museum  textiles  are  considered  of  great  value 

Collections  for  the  textile  industry,  and  both 

originals  and  reproductions  are  em- 
phasized as  of  importance.  The  inclusion  of  modern  examples 
was  favored  in  a  number  of  cases. 

The  problem  presented  in  the  matter 
Summary  of  designers  in  this  industry  is  two- 

fold. On  the  one  hand  are  the  sketch 
makers  whe  need  very  much  the  same  training  as  that  required 
for  printed  silks,  with  the  desirable  addition  of  some  under- 
standing of  the  requirements  of  Jacquard  weaving. 

Those  who  make  the  Jacquard  working  designs  face  a  some- 
what varied  set  of  requirements.  In  all  cases  they  need  to 
understand  the  processes  of  Jacquard  weaving.  The  amount 
of  artistic  ability  required  in  addition  would  seem  to  vary 
considerably  according  to  the  policies  and  practices  of  dif- 
ferent establishments. 

Many  of  the  Jacquard  designers  are  simply  draftsmen  who 
translate  the  sketch  on  to  squared  paper,  and  for  these  the 
practical  training  gained  in  the  design  room  or  at  the  mill 
will  perhaps  suffice.  But  the  head  of  the  Jacquard  design 


Woven  upholstery  silk  adapted  from  a  Flemish  brocade  of  the  \']th  century 


TEXTILES  8i 

staff  is  often  a  person  upon  whom  much  responsibility  rests 
as  to  selection  of  colors  and  the  technical  development  of  the 
design.  For  such  persons  a  rich  practical  and  artistic  training 
are  both  necessary  and  it  is  to  the  development  of  these  that 
more  attention  would  seem  essential  if  we  expect  to  develop 
our  own  resources  in  this  field. 

Several  textile  schools  in  this  country  are  well  equipped 
with  machinery  and  apparatus,  and  are  in  a  position  to  give 
whatever  instruction  on  the  technical  side  is  desirable  to  give 
in  schools.  Certain  of  these  schools  have  well-developed  art 
departments  and,  whatever  has  been  the  case  in  the  past, 
are  now  prepared  to  give  advanced  instruction  in  textile  de- 
sign. Extremely  few  students  have  heretofore  come  out  of 
these  schools  who  have  combined  the  study  of  design  with 
such  instruction  in  Jacquard  weaving  as  is  necessary  to  equip 
designers  for  this  field.  This  fact  is  apparently  partly  due  to 
past  deficiencies  of  the  schools  and  partly  to  the  small  re- 
muneration offered  by  manufacturers  to  their  graduates.  It 
would  seem  of  vital  importance  that  the  education  now 
offered  by  these  schools  should  receive  serious  consideration 
by  manufacturers  as  a  means  for  furnishing  a  supply  of 
young  persons  out  of  which  may  come  high-grade  and  well- 
equipped  persons  to  head  the  Jacquard  designing  staffs. 
Silk  Ribbons 

In  connection  with  printed  and  woven  pattern  silks  a 
study  was  made  of  the  conditions  relating  to  designs  for  silk 
ribbons.  The  lack  of  variety  in  design  presented  by  ribbons, 
the  small  number  of  designers  needed  to  supply  the  demands 
of  the  industry  and  the  fact  that  the  problems  presented  are 
on  the  whole  similar  to  those  met  with  in  broad  silks,  seem 
to  make  it  inadvisable  to  present  a  separate  report  upon  this 
branch  of  the  silk  industry. 

Very  few  ribbon  houses  at  present  employ  designers.  Those 
that  do  so  have  generally  obtained  designers  from  abroad 
with  technical  training.  Designs  for  printed  ribbons  are  gen- 
erally obtained  from  free-lance  designers  and  those  for  woven 
patterns  from  design  studios. 


82  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

WOOL  AND  COTTON  TAPESTRIES 

Furniture  coverings  and  draperies, 
Nature  of  Designs  under  ordinary  household  conditions, 
USED  IN  last  for  a  number  of  years.  Wool  and 

THE  Industry  cotton  tapestries  for  these  purposes 

must,  therefore,  refrain  from  any  em- 
phasis of  temporary  fashion.  As  a  consequence,  standard  con- 
ventional patterns  form  the  main  reliance  for  such  fabrics  and 
these  are  drawn  very  largely  from  historic  examples. 

Up  to  the  present  time  historic  motives  have  proved  ot 
such  sufficient  suitability  and  beauty  for  these  textiles  as  to 
withstand  all  attempts  to  introduce  new  tendencies  in  styles. 

For  the  above  reasons  there  is  very  little  effort  devoted  to 
the  creation  of  new  motives  for  these  fabrics  and  the  following 
words  of  one  of  the  leaders  in  the  industry  are  suggestive,  if 
not  altogether  true,  in  regard  to  the  role  design  and  invention 
play  in  this  field.  He  said:  "Give  me  a  collection  of  historic 
motives,  such  as  are  contained  in  the  South  Kensington 
Museum,  and  a  piece  of  tracing  paper,  and  I  can  take  any 
man  in  my  establishment  and  make  a  useful  designer  of  him 
in  a  few  days." 

This  general  attitude  is  typical  of  the  design  situation  in 
the  entire  industry.  Manufacturers  possess  a  large  collection 
of  samples  upon  which  they  draw  freely  for  suggestions, 
making  changes  in  size  and  color  which  they  find  desirable. 
To  accomplish  such  modifications  with  as  good  taste  as 
possible  is  the  aim  of  most  design  work  in  the  industry. 

Furthermore,  the  upholstery  industry  does  not  attempt  to 
set  styles.  In  this  matter  it  follows  the  lead  of  the  decorators 
and  furniture  manufacturers. 

It  is  to  the  technical  problems  of  weaving  that  the  energies 
of  the  industry  are  largely  directed.  Study  and  ingenuity  are 
concentrated  on  developments  that  will  either  produce  a  new 
effect  or  an  old  effect  at  less  expense. 

Tapestries  are  woven  on  large  Jacquard  looms  in  imitation 
of  hand-woven  tapestries.  After  the  design  has  been  trans- 


TEXTILES  83 

ferred  on  to  squared  paper,  cards  for  the  loom  are  cut,  the 
colors  being  run  either  on  the  warp  in  the  case  of  cotton 
tapestries,  or  on  the  weft  in  the  case  of  wool.  To  prepare  the 
loom  for  weaving  a  new  pattern  is  an  expensive  operation 
involving  a  cost  in  the  development  of  the  design  and  the 
cutting  of  the  cards  of  from  $500  to  $1,000  and  a  period  of 
time  from  six  to  eight  weeks.  About  five  to  fifteen  yards, 
according  to  fineness,  is  the  average  daily  product  of  the 
loom. 

The  quality  and  price  of  tapestries  vary  according  to  the 
material,  the  process,  fineness  of  weave,  and  the  intricacy 
of  the  pattern,  the  average  number  of  cards  being  from  800 
to  6,000. 

During  the  war,  and  at  the  time  of  the  survey,  conditions 
in  all  decorative  fabric  industries  were  particularly  abnormal. 
The  demand  was  much  greater  than  the  supply.  Most  estab- 
lishments were  sold  out  for  a  year  ahead  and  efforts  were 
devoted  to  increasing  production  with  as  little  waste  of  time 
and  money  as  possible.  This  condition  was  one  that  naturally 
lessened,  even  below  the  usual  point,  the  demand  for  new 
designs.  In  normal  times,  however,  keen  competition  for 
good  designs  goes  on  between  the  various  establishments. 

The  five  establishments  from  which 
Where  Designs  Are    data  were  obtained  all  employ  de- 
Obtained  signers.  In  four  cases  no  designs  are 

purchased  outside.  One  of  the  con- 
cerns purchases  thirty-five  per  cent,  of  their  designs  in  Europe 
and  also  buys  about  fifty  designs  a  year  from  free-lance  artists 
at  prices  ranging  from  $25  to  $75.  Three  establishment  repre- 
sentatives are  of  the  opinion  that  European  designs  are  not 
superior  to  those  obtainable  in  the  United  States.  One  takes 
the  opposite  point  of  view  and  one  states  that  the  color 
combinations  in  European  designs  are  superior  to  those  made 
in  America. 

As  has  been  indicated  above,  a  large  proportion  of  the 
motives  for  the  designs  in  this  industry  are  obtained  from 
historic  and  modern  textiles  or  documents. 


84  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

A  production  manager  or  styler  de- 
How  New  Designs      fines  the  character  and  quality  of  the 
Are  Defined  design  produced.  All  of  the  stylers  or 

production  managers  were  developed 
through  practical  experience  in  the  business. 

Designs  are  made  in  various  ways. 
Work  of  Designers     In   some   establishments   there   are 

head  designers,  sketch  makers,  and 
putters-on  (Jacquard  translators).  A  head  designer  is  a  well- 
equipped  man  who  understands  the  practical  side  of  pro- 
duction and  superintends  the  development  of  the  design 
from  the  first  sketch  to  the  production  on  the  loom.  In  some 
cases  a  production  manager  takes  the  place  of  the  head  de- 
signer. The  sketch  maker  works  up  the  ideas  of  the  designer 
or  production  manager.  The  putter-on  must  understand  the 
requirements  of  the  card  cutter  and  must  be  a  good  drafts- 
man, capable  of  exact  work  and  able  to  use  various  colors  in 
his  drawings  that  will  be  clearly  distinguishable. 

In  some  establishments  there  is  no  strict  division  between 
those  who  make  the  sketches  and  the  copyists  or  draftsmen. 
As  a  general  thing  a  major  part  of  the  work  in  the  design 
room  is  limited  to  the  translation  of  designs  to  meet  technical 
requirements,  and  makes  few  demands  upon  artistic  ability. 
In  some  cases  the  designs  produced  in  the  drafting  room 
give  merely  the  form  and  general  color  differentiation.  These 
are  then  worked  up  by  a  production  manager  as  to  the  color 
of  threads  to  be  actually  used  in  the  loom.  A  number  of  color 
schemes  are  often  woven  as  try-outs.  These  are  perhaps 
modified  and  other  experiments  woven  before  the  final  color 
scheme  is  decided  upon. 

Designers    have    been    secured    for 

Training  for  American  establishments  in  various 

Designers  ways.  Employers  have  often  sent  to 

Europe  for  a  designer  who  has  had 
practical  experience  as  well  as  art-school  training;  they  have 
also  secured  designers  from  other  establishments  by  the  offer 
of  increased  salary;  lastly,  they  have  developed  designers 


Rayon  and  cotton  tapestry,  3  wejt  and  6  'warp  colo) 


Cotton  tapestry  woven  with  rough  yarn,  3  wejt  and  6  warp  colors 


TEXTILES  85 

within  the  establishment.  A  large  proportion  of  the  designers 
at  present  engaged  in  the  tapestry  industry  have  been 
developed  in  the  latter  way.  A  young  man  in  any  of  the 
other  departments  in  the  establishment  showing  interest 
and  aptitude  for  his  work  may  be  placed  in  the  design  room 
under  the  guidance  of  the  head  designer,  where  he  at  times 
develops  into  an  efficient  worker.  The  weakness  of  this 
method  of  training  lies,  of  course  in  the  limited  oppor- 
tunity presented  for  broad  artistic  development  unless  the 
head  designer  stimulates  such  young  workers  to  outside 
study. 

Thirty-two  designers  are  employed  by  the  five  establish- 
ments studied.  Eight  of  these  were  trained  in  Europe.  These  in- 
clude three  of  the  head  designers.  Of  the  latter  one  was  trained 
through  an  art  school  and  mill  experience  in  Scotland,  the 
other  two  in  a  textile  school  at  Crefeld,  Germany.  Of  the 
others  trained  in  Europe  three  had  art-school  and  studio 
experience  and  two  were  developed  through  the  mill  and  the 
design  studio. 

Of  the  twenty-four  trained  in  the  United  States  twenty-one 
have  been  developed  solely  through  design-room  experience. 
A  few  of  these  have  attended  evening  classes  in  design.  Three 
had  their  first  training  in  an  art  school. 

The  salaries  reported  for  designers 
Remuneration  of       range  from  $1,800  to  $5,000  a  year. 
Designers  From  $2,000  to  $3,200  would  seem 

to  be  the  most  common  figures. 
It  is  evident  from  statements  made 
Demand  for  that  designers  capable  of  creating 

Designers  artistic  combinations  and  who  under- 

stand thoroughly  the  requirements  of 
Jacquard  design  are  difficult  to  obtain.  Were  such  designers 
more  readily  available  the  quality  of  results  would  evidently 
be  improved  and  the  difficulty  of  securing  fine  color  effects 
in  the  fabric  much  decreased.  One  representative  states  the 
opinion  that  a  really  well-equipped  designer,  possessing  both 
strong  artistic  feeling  and  knowledge  of  commercial  require- 


86  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

ments,  would  unquestionably  increase  the  business  of  his  es- 
tablishment. 

In  each  case  the  opinion  was  expressed 
Training  that  art-school  instruction  under  our 

Recommended  by      present  conditions  does  not  afford 
Establishment        satisfactory  training  for  entering  the 

Representatives  design  room  in  this  industry.  If  any 
special  school  training  is  to  precede 
entrance  to  a  design  room,  a  textile  school  combining  art 
instruction  with  thorough  training  in  technical  processes  is 
favored.  All  representatives  regard  it  as  essential  to  follow 
any  school  training,  however  thorough,  by  practical  appren- 
ticeship in  the  design  room  of  a  producing  establishment.  All 
feel  that  evening  classes  can  be  of  much  value  in  providing 
instruction  on  the  artistic  side,  provided  that  this  instruc- 
tion is  specialized  in  the  direction  of  tapestry  design. 

One  representative  states  that  the  head  designer  should 
have  a  thorough  training  in  textile  designing,  which  should 
involve  drawing,  understanding  of  cloth  structure  and  the 
work  of  the  various  looms;  the  sketch  maker  should  have 
training  in  design  and  color  and  be  well  acquainted  with 
historic  textile  patterns;  the  putter-on  should  be  a  good 
draftsman  and  have  enough  of  artistic  appreciation  to  pre- 
serve the  significant  elements  of  the  sketch  while  translating 
it  into  a  Jacquard  working  design.  Another  representative 
states  that  the  textile  schools  in  the  United  States  are  inade- 
quate as  compared  with  those  in  England,  France,  and  Ger- 
many, and  believes  that  the  design  instructor  in  such  a  school 
should  be  a  thoroughly  competent  man  with  considerable 
experience  in  commercial  work  and  should  be  paid  a  salary 
commensurate  with  commercial  remuneration. 

Another  representative  believes  that  designers  should  work 
in  the  design  room  during  the  day  and  study  at  night  in  the 
fields  of  drawing,  color,  and  design. 

It  is  noted  that  in  one  city  draftsmen  have  formed  a 
union.  The  results  of  this  action,  in  the  opinion  of  one 
representative,  have  not  been  beneficial,  as  it  has  resulted  in 


TEXTILES  87 

a  uniform  rate  of  pay  and  robbed  the  workers  of  ambition 
to  progress. 

Four  head  designers  are  of  the  opinion 
Training  that  the  best  foundation  training  for 

Recommended  by      design  work  for  Jacquard  fabrics  can 
Designers  be  obtained  in  a  textile  school  giving 

instruction  in  weavingjdyeing  and  tex- 
tile cons  true  tion  wi  th  related  work  in  drawing,  color,  and  design . 
All  establishment  representatives  re- 
MusEUM  gard  museum  collections  of  textiles 

Collections         as  very  important.  Two  state  that 
such  collections  should  be  made  up 
of  originals  where  possible,  and  all  are  of  the  opinion  that 
such  collections  should  provide  for  the  display  of  present-day 
artistic  products. 

One  representative  expresses  the  opinion  that  the  Metro- 
politan Museum  and  the  Museum  of  Natural  History  meet 
the  need  in  Greater  New  York,  but  expresses  the  opinion 
that  it  would  be  much  better  if  such  collections  could  be 
housed  under  one  roof.  All  believe  that  these  museums  should 
be  open  in  the  evening. 

It  is  evident  that  if  the  tapestry  in- 
SuMMARY  dustry  in  this  country  is  to  become 

independent  of  European-trained  de- 
signers it  must  give  more  attention  to  the  training  of  high 
grade  designers  in  the  United  States.  With  the  present  con- 
stitution of  designing  staffs  in  the  various  establishments, 
headed  generally  by  broadly  trained  European  designers,  the 
establishment  representatives  are  content  to  favor  introduc- 
ing young  workers  from  the  mill  into  the  design  department 
and  relying  entirely  upon  the  training  afforded  there,  with 
the  possible  addition  of  night-school  instruction  in  color  and 
design.  Such  a  system  of  training  would  seem  to  carry  no  as- 
surance of  permanent  high  standards  unless  it  is  to  be  fed  at 
the  top,  when  necessary,  with  other  highly  equipped  designers. 
If  superior  designers,  capable  of  dealing  not  only  with 
historic  patterns  but  with  new  creations,  are  to  be  trained  in 


88  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

this  country,  it  would  seem  clear  that  the  artistic  education 
needed  can  only  effectively  be  secured  through  study  in  a  day 
art  school,  followed  by  mill  experience,  or  by  a  textile-school 
training  in  which  ample  provision  is  made  for  instruction  in 
drawing,  color,  historic  ornament,  and  design  and  sufficient 
instruction  in  cloth  structure  and  loom  processes  to  de- 
velop an  understanding  of  the  technical  requirements  un- 
derlying Jacquard  design.  Of  these  two  the  latter  would 
seem  to  promise  more  certain  results. 

There  exist  at  the  present  time  in  the  United  States  at 
least  two  textile  schools  amply  provided  with  opportunities 
to  give  the  necessary  art  training  as  related  to  textiles.  While 
it  is  probably  true  that  the  tapestry  industry  in  itself  could 
absorb  or  support  but  few  designers  trained  in  this  way,  and 
while  it  is  also  true  that  only  the  hope  of  superior  positions 
paying  adequate  salaries  will  inspire  young  people  to  under- 
take such  training,  it  would  seem  that  the  several  branches 
of  the  textile  trades  issuing  in  woven  pattern  designs  could 
readily  absorb  the  graduates  of  one  or  both  of  these  schools  if 
confidence  in  their  abilities  were  developed.  Larger  recog- 
nition of  the  training  opportunities  presented  in  these  schools 
would  seem  to  be  necessary  on  the  part  of  American  manu- 
facturers if  superior  designers  for  these  trades  are  to  be  de- 
veloped in  this  country. 


TEXTILES  89 

FIGURED  PILE  FABRICS 

Pile  fabrics  differ  from  other  fabrics  in  having  a  nap  of 
threads,  either  loops  or  free  ends,  emerging  above  the  regular 
cloth  structure.  Such  fabrics,  which  include  velvets,  velours, 
plushes,  cheniles,  velveteens  and  corduroys,  are  made  of 
various  materials,  among  which  are  silk,  linen,  cotton,  jute, 
sheep's  wool  and  the  wool  of  the  Angora  goat.  The  chief 
aesthetic  characteristic  of  pile  fabrics  is  the  beauty  of  color 
obtained  by  the  play  of  light  through  the  upstanding  pile  and 
by  variations  of  light  and  color  where  a  pattern  is  introduced. 

There  are  two  ways  of  making  pile  fabrics.  One  in  which 
two  cloths  are  woven  at  the  same  time  with  a  connecting  pile 
thread,  which  is  then  cut  in  the  loom,  and  another  method  by 
weaving  on  a  so-called  wire  loom  in  which  case  a  single  cloth 
is  produced.  Another  textile  which  might  be  classed  as  a  pile 
is  velveteen,  which  is  woven  flat  and  teazeled  after  weaving. 

The  various  methods  of  producing  surface  patterns  are  as 
follows: 

1 .  Jacquard  Weaving — (a)  Yarn  dyed  where  the  pattern  is 
produced  by  controlling  the  arrangement  of  the  pile  threads 
by  the  usual  Jacquard  method,  (b)  Piece  dyed  where  the 
goods  are  dyed  after  weaving.  The  pattern  is  formed  during 
weaving  by  using  threads  of  one  fibre  to  make  the  figure 
while  threads  of  another  fibre  make  the  background.  When 
the  cloth  is  dyed  the  two  fibres  take  the  color  in  a  different 
way,  thus  bringing  out  the  pattern,  (c)  When  patterns  are 
produced  by  cut  and  uncut  pile. 

2.  Roller  Printings  which  produces  an  effect  of  great  soft- 
ness of  outline  on  pile  fabrics  and  a  beautiful  play  of  color. 
This  process,  however,  is  limited  as  to  size  of  design  and 
number  of  colors. 

2- Hand  Block  Printings  which  is  used  to  a  considerable 
extent  for  fine  effects,  as  this  process  presents  no  limits  as  to 
size  of  motive  and  number  of  colors  that  can  be  used.  Smaller 
quantities  can  be  produced  by  this  process  than  are  econom- 
ically profitable  in  roller  printing. 


90  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

4.  Embossing — In  embossing  the  roller  becomes  a  die,  and 
the  application  of  heat  and  pressure  stamps  the  pattern  on 
the  plain  material  in  such  a  way  that  part  of  the  design  is 
raised  (pile  straight),  and  the  rest  pressed  down  (pile  matted). 

5.  Cutting  is  a  process  in  which  part  of  the  surface  (either 
the  background  or  the  pattern)  of  plain  goods  is  sheared  down 
with  knives  or  etched  with  acids. 

The  last  two  processes  endeavor  to  produce  the  effect  of 
Jacquard  weaving  without  its  expense  and  the  ingenuity  of 
the  trade  is  largely  concentrated  upon  perfecting  new  methods 
that  will  achieve  such  results.  It  should  be  said  however  that 
some  of  these  new  effects,  especially  those  produced  by  cutting, 
have  a  quality  of  their  own. 

The  demand   for   the   finer   fabrics 
Nature  of  the        reaches   the  establishments   largely 
Demand  for  through  wholesale  jobbers  and  cus- 

Designs  tomers.  Motives  for  designs  are  con- 

sequently furnished  by  the  consum- 
ing industries  rather  than  by  the  establishments  themselves. 

The  designs  follow  the  styles  in  furniture  and  interior  deco- 
ration closely  and  are  largely  dependent  upon  historic  motives. 

Of  the  seven  establishments  studied 
Where  Designs  Are    three  employ  no  designers.    In  the 
Obtained  other  four,  a  total  of  five  designers  are 

employed.  Three  concerns  purchase 
their  designs  either  from  individuals  or  design  studios.  In  other 
cases  a  limited  number  of  designs  are  also  so  purchased.  Such 
designs  are  obtained  at  prices  ranging  from  I25  to  I75.  One 
case  reports  $10  as  a  minimum  price.  These  are  generally 
sketches  which  have  to  be  redrawn  before  going  to  the  mill. 
There  would  seem  to  be  but  very  few  specialists  in  designs 
for  pile  fabrics. 

In  only  two  cases  was  it  reported  that  designs  are  purchased 
in  Europe  and  in  these  cases  only  about  five  per  cent,  of  the 
consumption  was  so  secured.  Two  representatives  consider 
that  European  designs  are  superior  in  the  matter  of  color 
combinations  and  one  in  the  quality  of  the  historic  motives. 


Jacquard  velvet  of  ramie  fibre 


TEXTILES  91 

The  problem  of  design  as  related  to 
How  New  Designs      pile  fabrics  is  not  so  much  one  con- 
Are  Defined  cerned  with  the  matter  of  creating 

new  motives  as  with  the  selection  of 
suitable  historic  motives  and  the  adaptation  of  the  same .  In 
the  manufacture  of  Jacquard  fabrics  the  dependence  is  largely 
upon  designs  of  old  velvet,  while  for  printed  fabrics  sugges- 
tions are  often  taken  from  tapestries,  embroideries  and  other 
textiles. 

In  all  cases  except  one  the  person  who  defines  the  motives  for 
new  patterns  was  developed  through  practical  experience  in 
the  trade.  In  the  remaining  case  the  styler  had  three  years' 
instruction  in  an  art  school. 

In  some  cases  the  sketch,  that  is,  the 
Work  of  Designers     design  showing  pattern  and  colors,  is 

made  by  one  designer  and  the  Jac- 
quard working  design  by  another.  In  other  cases  the  two 
designs  are  made  by  the  same  person.  Much  of  the  work  of 
the  designer  is  concerned  with  the  adapting  of  motives  taken 
from  old  velvets  and  other  textiles  to  the  requirements  of 
pile  fabric  production. 

Of  the  five  designers  employed  in  pro- 

Training  of  ducingestablishmentsonewas trained 

Designers  in  France,  one  in  England,  one  in 

Scotland,  and  two  in  the  United  States. 

One  of  the  latter  attended  an  art  school  for  three  years  and 

the  other,  evening  classes  in  the  Philadelphia  Textile  School. 

The  French  designer  was  trained  in  the  Textile  School  at  Lyons 

and  the  Scotchman  received  his  education  in  an  art  school 

in  Glasgow. 

Salaries  reported  range  from  $1,200 
Remuneration  of       a  year  for  beginners  to  from  $3,000 
Designers  to  $5,000  for  skilled  designers. 

The  situation  in  regard  to  the  need 

Demand  for  for  designers  for  pile  fabrics  is  very 

Designers  similar  to  that  in  other  branches  of 

the  textile  trades.  The  demand  is  not 


92  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

for  more  designers  but  for  better  designers,  designers  of 
greater  artistic  talent  than  are  available  at  the  present  time. 

The  uniform  opinion  expressed  is  that 
Training  art  schools  as  at  present  constituted 

Recommended  by       cannot  fully  equip  designers  for  pile 
Establishment         fabrics.  They  can  only  lay  a  founda- 
Representatives       tion  which  needs  to  be  supplemented 
by  an  extended  training  as  to  the 
technical  requirements  of  production  gained  in  commercial 
practice.   Three  believe  that  school  instruction  might  be 
brought  to  the  point  of  developing  commercial  designers  if  an 
effective  combination  of  practical  training  and  art  instruc- 
tion could  be  secured. 

All  feel  that  it  is  necessary  for  the  styler  or  head  designer 
to  assume  considerable  responsibility  for  the  training  of  be- 
ginners in  the  design  room. 

The  designers  interviewed  refer  to 
Training  the  instruction  in  historic  motives  as 

Recommended  by       being  the  most  valuable  element  in 
Designers  the  training  for  their  work.  They 

state  that  while  the  industry  is  con- 
tent with  the  reproduction  and  modification  of  historic 
motives  breadth  of  artistic  training  and  creative  imagination 
does  not  count  so  much  as  in  other  trades. 

Efforts  to  obtain  variety  in  effects  and  to  devise  new  and 
more  economical  ways  of  obtaining  such  effects  are  according 
to  them  the  principal  considerations  in  designing  for  pile  fabrics . 
School  work  is  recommended  based  on  a  course  in  design 
followed  by  one  or  two  years  of  specialization  in  textile  design 
accompanied  by  a  practical  course  in  weaving,  such  as  might 
be  furnished  in  a  textile  school.  Furtherance  of  this  training 
in  commercial  establishments  is  deemed  necessary  to  equip 
the  competent  designer. 

All  representatives  consider  museums 

Museum  containing  textile  collections  as  very 

Collections  important  in  furthering  the  artistic 

possibilities  of  the  trade,  and  are  of 


TEXTILES  93 

the  opinion  that,  while  such  collections  should  contain  as  many 
originals  as  possible,  reproductions  should  also  be  shown. 
All  believe  that  such  collections  should  contain  present- 
day  products. 

Five  report  that  the  Metropolitan  Museum  fulfills  this 
need  to  some  extent.  All  feel  that  museums  should  be  open 
in  the  evening  to  aid  designers. 

Two  problems  are  presented  in  the 
Summary  matter  of  design  for  pile  fabrics  as  in 

other  branches  of  the  textile  trade 
involving  Jacquard  weaving.  One  is  the  development  of  the 
sketch  artist  and  the  other  the  training  of  the  Jacquard  de- 
signer. These  two  are  sometimes  represented  in  one  person, 
but  usually  the  sketch  is  developed  by  one  designer  and  the 
Jacquard  working  design  by  another.  The  problem  in  the 
pile  fabric  industry  is  one  that  centers  largely  in  the  sketch 
artist  and  the  conditions  of  the  case  are  very  similar  to  those 
presented  in  the  development  of  such  artists  in  many  other 
branches  of  the  textile  trade.  Recommendations  concerning 
this  situation  are  presented  under  Provisions  for  Training 
Designers  for  Printed  Silks,  Printed  Cottons  and  Cretonnes. 

The  problem  of  the  Jacquard  designer  as  related  to  the 
manufacturer  of  pile  fabrics  is  comparatively  unimportant 
both  from  the  fact  that  Jacquard  weaving  constitutes  but  a 
small  element  in  the  production  of  such  goods  and  because  of 
the  mechanical  quality  of  skill  required  in  the  draftsman. 


94  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

CARPETS  AND  RUGS 

Surface  patterns  in  carpets  and  rugs  are  obtained  either  by 
weaving  with  colored  yarn,  or  by  printing  on  the  yarn  before 
weaving.  Printing  is  performed  by  rollers  in  which  the  design 
is  etched  or  engraved.  Woven  patterns  are  produced  on 
Jacquard  or  Axminster  looms. 

During  the  period  of  the  survey  the  leading  carpet  and  rug 
mills  ofthe  country  were  working  at  full  capacity,  and  their  pro- 
duction could  hardly  keep  pace  with  the  demand.  With  such  an 
insistent  demand,  purchasers  were  content  to  accept  carpets 
with  comparative  indifference  to  their  design.  In  consequence, 
mills  were  largely  engaged  in  producing  the  same  goods  that 
they  were  turning  out  twelve  months  or  two  years  previous. 

Designs  for  carpets  and  rugs  largely 

Nature  of  the        follow  the  trend  of  styles  in  interior 

Demand  for  Designs  decoration,  and  suggestions  are  often 

supplied  by  architects  and  decorators. 
Salesmen  are  also  depended  upon  to  observe  the  demands  of 
the  market  and  the  trend  of  new  designs. 

Inspiration  for  new  motives  is  today 
Where  Designs  Are    largely  found  in  Oriental  rugs.  Mu- 
Obtained  seum  collections,  foreign  and  Ameri- 

can textiles,  books  of  ornament,  and 
nature  study  are  also  noted  as  sources  of  new  ideas.  One  de- 
signer states  that  designs  for  carpets  and  rugs  are  derived  to 
such  an  extent  from  old  rug  patterns  that  much  talent  for 
adaptation  but  comparatively  little  creative  imagination  is 
required. 

Of  the  five  establishments  studied,  all  employ  designers  in 
their  own  organizations.  One  hundred  and  eight  designers  are 
employed  in  these  establishments  and  several  firms  report 
employing  more  in  normal  times.  But  few  designs  are  pur- 
chased outside.  Only  one  establishment  reports  the  purchase 
of  designs  in  Europe  and  that  to  a  very  small  extent.  Two 
state  the  opinion  that  these  designs  are  often  superior  to 
those  made  in  America. 


tgi^c^iPtfi^iggr^'fr^''^  f'^i 


'J^iaBSEaj^'a^.afca^s;  ^Siut, 


Machine  woven  rug  with  design  adapted jrom  the  decoration  of 
a  Chinese  vase  of  the  K'angHsi  period 


TEXTILES  95 

Motives  for  new  designs  are  defined 
How  New  Designs      either  by  the  head  of  the  sales  depart- 
Are  Defined  ment,  the  head  designer,  or  by  the 

two  in  conjunction. 
In  designing  a  pattern  for  either  a 
Work  of  Designers  printed  or  a  woven  rug  the  head  de- 
signer usually  confers  with  the  head 
of  the  sales  department.  A  small  sketch  is  then  usually  pre- 
pared and  submitted  to  the  head  salesman.  If  approved,  this 
sketch  is  presented  to  the  colorist  at  the  mill  who  may  suggest 
modifications  in  the  color  scheme  to  meet  the  technical  re- 
quirements of  production.  A  full-size  Jacquard  working  draw- 
ing is  then  made. 

In  some  establishments  designers  are  graded  into  origina- 
tors, sketchers,  and  copyists  or  Jacquard  translators,  although 
no  strict  division  exists  between  the  grades,  and  those  with 
talent  in  one  group  gradually  pass  into  the  next  higher.  In 
other  establishments  there  is  no  division  as  to  methods  of 
work  but  a  grading  depending  on  capacity  for  original  work. 
In  any  case,  important  original  work  is  performed  by  only  a 
few  skilled  designers.  The  majority  of  the  design  staffs  are  en- 
gaged upon  copying,  enlarging,  or  adapting  motives  or  other 
work  requiring  little  creative  power. 

Records  were  obtained  in  the  case  of 

Training  of  forty-nine   designers.    Forty-one   of 

Designers  these  were  educated  in  the  United 

States  and  eight  in  Europe.  One  head 

designer  was  trained  in  a  textile  school  at  Elberfeld,  Germany; 

two  in  a  textile  school  at  Glasgow;  one  took  extensive  courses 

in  fine  arts  in  the  United  States  and  in  France;  and  two 

derived  their  training  through  practical  experience  in  this 

country  with  evening  school  instruction  in  design.  Three  of 

the  establishment  representatives  state  that  their  practice 

has  been  to  obtain  their  head  designers  from  Europe. 

Of  the  thirty-eight  other  designers  trained  in  the  United 
States  two  received  instruction  in  a  day  art  school,  three  in 
textile  schools  and  thirty-three  gained  their  education  in 


96  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

practical  work  in  the  mill  and  designing  rooms.  Of  the  last 
group  eighteen  studied  design  in  evening  schools. 

Of  the  five  others  trained  in  Europe  two  received  some 
instruction  in  a  day  art  school,  one  attended  a  textile  school 
in  France,  and  two  received  their  training  through  practical 
work  in  the  mill  and  designing  rooms  and  through  instruction 
in  evening  schools. 

In  cases  where  beginners  in  the  design  room  are  recruited 
from  the  mill,  they  are  sometimes  first  employed  at  color 
grinding  and  odd  jobs,  and  are  later  given  opportunities  for 
copying  from  designs  furnished  by  the  head  designer. 

The   salaries   reported   range   from 

Remuneration  of       $1,250  to  $6,750  per  year.  In  cases 

Designers  where  beginners  from  art  schools  are 

employed,  $20  to  $25  per  week  is 

given  as  the  remuneration. 

Three  firms   state  that  in  normal 

Demand  for  times  the  business  of  their  individual 

Designers  establishments  would  be  furthered 

and  possibly  expanded  by  a  larger 

supply  of  higher-grade  designers.  One  states  that  they  are 

always  in  need  of  good  designers. 

A  balance  of  technical  knowledge 
Training  and  artistic  feeling  is  stated  to  be  the 

Recommended  by      strong  point  in  the  equipment  of  the 
Establishment        best  designers.  The  weak  points  that 
Representatives      are  stressed  are  lack  of  artistic  cul- 
ture and  lack  of  imagination,  person- 
ality and  ambition.  In  no  case  is  the  opinion  expressed  that  a 
satisfactory  and  eflfective  training  for  beginning  work  in  the 
designing  department  can  be  obtained  in  art  schools  as  at 
present  constituted. 

Three  of  the  largest  establishments  favor  taking  boys  from 
high-schools,  at  sixteen  or  seventeen  years  of  age,  where  some 
instruction  in  free-hand  drawing  and  color  has  been  given 
and  placing  them  first  in  the  design  room  for  a  period  of  ap- 
prenticeship. During  this  period  of  a  year  or  a  year  and  a  half 


TEXTILES  97 

they  are  given  work  in  copying  and  simple  drafting.  Those 
who  show  aptitude  for  the  work  are  then  put  into  the  coloring, 
card-cutting  and  weaving  departments  of  the  mill  to  learn 
the  technical  requirements  of  production  processes,  and  are 
then  reentered  in  the  design  room.  Such  beginners  are  en- 
couraged to  attend  evening  classes  where  they  can  obtain 
further  instruction  in  color  and  design.  In  one  establishment 
experts  from  the  different  departments  give  talks  or  lectures 
twice  a  year  explanatory  of  the  practical  considerations  that 
bear  upon  the  character  of  the  design. 

All  representatives  emphasize  the  opinion  that  an  art- 
school  training  can  be  effective  in  this  field  only  when  it  is 
supplemented  by  considerable  experience  in  a  producing 
establishment.  One  representative  believes  that  the  textile 
school  affords  the  best  opportunity  of  combining  technical 
training  and  artistic  instruction. 

In  all  cases  the  opinion  is  expressed  that  the  commercial 
establishments  must  be  willing  to  go  to  considerable  lengths 
to  further  the  training  of  the  young  beginners  after  they  have 
been  entered  in  the  design  department. 

Evening  classes  are  felt  to  be  of  much  value  in  affording 
opportunities  for  instruction  in  color  and  design  to  young 
workers  in  the  design  room  who  have  had  only  technical 
training. 

A  weakness   in    art-school    training 
Training  noted  by  designers  is  lack  of  instruc- 

Recommended  by      tion  on  the  technical  side  of  weaving 
Designers  and  dyeing.  Technical  instruction  in 

the  textile  schools  in  Germany  is  re- 
ported as  very  thorough,  but  that  too  little  opportunity  is 
afforded  for  individual  development. 

Five  of  the  designers  believe  that  the  best  preparation  for 
design  work  in  this  field  is  a  broad  art-school  training  of 
three  to  four  years.  In  two  cases  a  textile-school  training 
is  preferred  where  opportunities  for  art  instruction  are 
available.  One  designer  feels  that  a  training  gained  entirely 
in  practical  conditions  is  preferable  to  any  school  training. 


98  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

Two  designers  consider  that  it  would  be  desirable  to  have 
students  go  into  commercial  establishmnts  during  their  sum- 
mer vacations. 

Museums  containing  textile  collec- 

MusEUM  tions  are  felt  to  be  very  important  in 

Collections  the  judgment  of  all  establishment 

representatives.  The  opinion  is  uni- 
formly expressed  that  specimens  used  in  museum  collections 
should  be  in  the  original  form  wherever  possible,supplemented 
by  reproductions  or  photographs.  Seven  concerns  feel  that 
present-day  artistic  products  should  be  included  in  such  col- 
lections. Four  reply  that  the  Metropolitan  Museum  fulfills 
the  need  to  some  extent,  and  one  mentions  the  Natural  His- 
tory Museum.  All  feel  that  such  museums  should  be  open  in 
the  evening. 

Conditions  in  regard  to  the  training 
Summary  of  designers  in  the  carpet  and  rug 

industry  are  very  similar  to  those 
existing  in  the  tapestry  industry  and  in  this  case  it  would  also 
seem  clear  that  if  America  is  to  develop  its  own  superior 
designers,  equipped  with  both  a  broad  artistic  and  technical 
training,  it  must  pay  more  attention  to  the  development  of 
such  designers  within  its  own  confines. 

In  establishments  already  well  provided  with  expert  head 
designers  developed  to  a  large  extent  in  Europe,  the  manage- 
ment is  largely  content  to  follow  the  policy  of  taking  into  the 
design  room  high-school  students  or  others  with  an  elemen- 
tary training  in  color  and  design  and  relying  for  their  further 
training  upon  the  head  designer  and  possible  attendance  at 
evening  schools.  Such  a  training  is  probably  sufficient  to 
equip  the  rank  and  file  in  the  designing  rooms  who  are  never 
to  become  expert  or  head  designers.  This  policy  allows  young 
workers  to  enter  the  designing  rooms  at  an  age  when  they  are 
content  to  enter  upon  an  apprenticeship  period  involving 
minor  tasks  and  odd  jobs  and  to  develop  a  thorough  acquaint- 
ance with  the  practical  methods  of  the  establishment  con- 
cerned. For  the  development  of  skilled,  expert  designers,  such 


i.    ■■; 


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.*^^    *    ^.' 


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"i^'U) 


^<sr^:":v 


Center  of  machine  woven  rug  with  design  adapted  from  a  Persian 
hunting  carpet  of  the  iGth  century 


TEXTILES  99 

a  training  is  manifestly  lacking  in  opportunities  for  broad 
artistic  culture. 

For  this  purpose  a  basic  school  training  embracing  both 
technical  instruction  and  training  in  design  would  seem  to  be 
very  desirable.  The  natural  opportunities  available  in  this 
country  for  such  training  would  appear  to  be,  first  of  all,  in 
those  textile  schools  which  afford  opportunities  for  art  train- 
ing. As  has  been  noted  in  preceding  portions  of  this  report, 
such  schools  have  so  far  produced  but  few  designers,  and 
future  possibilities  in  this  direction  depend  both  upon  further 
coordination  of  design  training  and  technical  instruction  and 
upon  encouragement  on  the  part  of  manufacturers. 

If  American  textile  schools  can  develop  courses  which 
achieve  a  practical  combination  of  these  two  elements,  and  if 
young  persons  can  be  induced  to  undertake  such  courses,  it  is 
certainly  to  be  hoped  that  they  will  receive  a  larger  degree  of 
support  from  manufacturers. 

Another  matter  of  extreme  importance  for  the  advance- 
ment of  artistic  standards  in  the  carpet  and  rug  trade  is  the 
education  of  retail  salesmen  to  a  greater  understanding  of  the 
qualities  of  good  design  in  these  textiles,  greater  appreciation 
of  color  harmony,  and  in  particular  greater  appreciation  of  the 
relation  that  color  in  floor  coverings  bears  to  the  general 
decoration  of  a  room.  In  the  case  of  rugs  and  carpets,  as  in  the 
case  of  draperies,  hangings,  wall  papers  and  furniture,  it  is 
peculiarly  the  retail  salesman  who  exercises  a  larger  influence 
in  affecting  the  quality  of  the  thing  sold  to  the  customer  than 
that  coming  from  any  other  quarter.  The  aesthetic  quality  of 
the  product  that  actually  finds  a  place  in  the  households  of 
the  country  is,  for  this  reason,  dependent  to  a  very  large 
degree  upon  intelligence  and  artistic  appreciation  in  these 
persons. 

It  is  consequently  of  much  importance,  and  in  these  trades 
perhaps  of  first  importance,  that  provision  should  be  devel- 
oped in  every  city  of  considerable  size  to  educate  both  the 
salesmen  and  the  buyers  in  the  elements  of  design,  particu- 
larly in  the  matter  of  color  and  the  relationship  of  the  floor 


loo  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

covering  to  a  general  scheme  of  interior  decoration.  Numbers 
that  would  warrant  a  plan  of  organized  instruction  are  liable 
to  be  found  in  every  large  city.  In  many  cases  existing  trade 
organizations  furnish  an  instrument  through  which  instruc- 
tion of  this  nature  can  be  developed  on  some  such  basis  as 
that  of  the  Art  in  Trades  Club  of  New  York  City. 


TEXTILES  loi 

EMBROIDERIES  AND  LACES 

The  production  and  use  of  embroideries  and  laces  for 
women's  costumes  vary,  to  a  considerable  extent,  with  the 
changing  tendencies  of  fashion.  In  some  years  the  demand 
for  such  fabrics  and  decorations  is  very  large,  in  others  much 
less.  In  the  case  of  laces  the  demand,  from  the  nature  of  the 
fabric,  is  also  somewhat  seasonable.  During  the  world  war 
the  American  production  of  both  embroideries  and  laces  was 
greatly  advanced  because  of  the  cessation  of  importations. 

Embroideries  and  laces  for  the  costume  trade  are  mostly 
made  on  the  Schiffli  machine,  which  uses  the  principle  of  the 
Jacquard  loom.  This  machine  produces  both  embroideries  and 
laces,  the  main  difference  being  that  when  the  background  tex- 
tile remains  as  part  of  the  finished  product  the  result  is  termed 
embroidery,  and  when  the  background  is  removed  (generally 
by  chemical  means)  the  product  is  called  lace.  When  the  pat- 
tern is  stitched  on  net  the  result  is  also  termed  lace.  Embroideries 
and  laces  made  on  such  machines  are  made  in  repeats. 

The  production  of  lace  by  the  Schiffli  machine  is  carried  on 
in  factories  of  considerable  size  both  in  New  York  City  and 
in  various  parts  of  eastern  New  Jersey.  A  very  considerable 
product  is  also  made  in  small  establishments  connected  with 
homes  of  the  workers  and  housing  one  or  two  machines. 

Woven  laces  and  nets  for  dresses  are  also  produced  on  the 
Lever  machine,  which  operates  on  the  Jacquard  principle. 

Embroideries  are  also  produced  on  the  Bonnaz  machine, 
which  stitches  a  design  according  to  a  pattern  already  per- 
forated and  stamped  on  the  material.  This  machine  makes 
only  one  pattern  at  a  time  and  is  not  subject  to  the  limitations 
as  to  size  of  pattern  of  machines  producing  repeats.  The 
Bonnaz  industry  is  as  important  in  volume  of  business  trans- 
acted and  capital  invested  as  the  Schiffli  lace  industry,  and 
deals  with  a  large  variety  of  work  and  materials.  Hand  em- 
broidery for  costumes  is  also  very  extensively  practiced.  It  is 
reported  that  upwards  of  700  shops,  mainly  owned  and 
operated  by  Italians,  exist  in  New  York  City. 


I02  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

The  demand  for  new  designs  for  laces 

Nature  of  Designs      and  embroideries  comes  through  the 

USED  IN  costume  trade,  and  the  nature  and 

THE  Industry  extent  of  this  demand  varies  with  the 

trend  of  fashion.  The  demand  either 
comes  directly  from  the  costume  houses  as  special  orders,  or 
designs  and  samples  are  made  up  to  anticipate  these  demands. 
American  embroidery  manufacturers  and  designers  have 
endeavored  to  keep  pace  with  the  best  work  turned  out  by 
European  establishments,  but  at  times,  owing  to  the  lack  of 
competent  designers  and  insistence  upon  European  designs, 
our  workers  have  been  forced  to  become  copyists  instead  of 
originators.  Manufacturers  have  long  striven  to  surmount 
these  conditions  by  creating  designers  at  home. 

Old  laces  and  embroideries  as  well  as  the  new  Parisian 
styles  are  studied  constantly  for  ideas.  Historic  and  modern 
ornament  of  all  kinds  is  also  searched  for  suggestions. 

Practically  all  designs  are  made  in 

Where  Designs         the   establishments.   Very   few   are 

ARE  Obtained  purchased   outside   from   free-lance 

designers.  Two  dollars  and  a  half  is 
mentioned  as  a  fair  price  for  a  design  from  this  source,  and  in 
another  case  |io  to  ^20  is  reported  as  being  paid.  With  the 
exceptions  of  the  three  firms  which  have  their  own  factories 
in  Switzerland,  comparatively  few  designs  are  purchased  in 
Europe.  Two  firms  state  that,  now  the  war  is  ended,  they  will 
again  seek  designs  abroad.  Ten  of  the  establishments  report 
that  European  designs  are  superior  to  those  obtainable  in 
this  country.  Emphasis  is  placed  upon  the  artistic  environ- 
ment on  the  other  side  and  the  fact  that  the  designer  has  there 
an  acknowledged  position  with  artistic  materials  of  all  kinds 
at  his  hand. 

The  general  character  of  new  designs 

How  New  Designs      is  defined  in  different  establishments 

ARE  Obtained  by  a  member  of  the  firm,  by  a  styler, 

by  the  head  designer,  or  by  a  com- 
bination of  these  persons.  The  stylers  are  largely  developed 


TEXTILES  103 

through  practical  experience  in  the  trade.  In  some  cases  they 
have  been  trained  in  industrial  art  schools  in  Europe. 

In  the  embroidery  industry  the 
Work  of  Designers     sketcher  develops  the  new  designs. 

In  some  cases  the  styler  performs  the 
work  of  the  sketcher.  The  designs  are  drawn  to  scale  and  are 
then  enlarged  for  the  use  of  the  embroidery  machines  by 
workers  called  enlargers  or  draftsmen.  When  Jacquard  ma- 
chines are  used  the  enlarged  drawing  is  used  as  a  guide  to  the 
card  cutter. 

The  success  of  the  resultant  work  depends  not  only  upon 
the  designers  but  also  upon  the  craft  workers,  especially  the 
stitchers,  who  make  or  mar  the  aesthetic  value  of  a  creation 
according  to  the  quality  of  their  work. 

For  Bonnaz  or  hand  embroidery  the  designs  are  first  drawn 
on  paper  representing  patterns  of  the  garment  to  be  decorated. 
These  designs  are  then  perforated  by  workers  who  correspond 
to  the  enlargers  in  the  woven-lace  trade.  The  perforated 
pattern  is  then  given  over  to  the  stampers,  who  transfer  the 
design  to  the  material  that  is  to  be  embroidered. 

Of  the  sixteen  establishments  inter- 
Training  of  viewed,  all  employ  designers.  Fifty- 

Designers  four  of  these  designers  are  located  in 

this  country  and  twenty-three  to 
thirty-three  in  the  factories  in  Switzerland.  All  but  thirteen 
of  the  designers  employed  in  this  country  were  trained  in  Eu- 
rope. With  the  exception  of  four,  all  those  trained  abroad 
received  their  instruction  in  Switzerland  and  the  large  major- 
ity of  these  at  St.  Gall. 

Only  two  important  schools  training  embroidery  and  lace 
designers  for  modern  processes  of  production  are  known.  One 
of  these  is  at  St.  Gall,  Switzerland,  and  one  at  Plauen,  Ger- 
many. In  both  schools  the  length  of  the  course  is  five  years, 
beginning  with  pupils  fourteen  or  fifteen  years  of  age.  A 
large  majority  of  the  expert  embroidery  designers  in  this 
country  were  developed  in  one  or  the  other  of  these  two 
schools. 


IQ4  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

Salaries  reported  by  establishments 
Remuneration  of      vary  from  $1,500  to  $7,000  a  year. 
Designers  These  relate  to  designers,  and  also  to 

enlargers  and  assistants.  In  one  es- 
tablishment employing  art-school  students,  a  beginning  salary 
of  $25  a  week  was  reported. 

Eleven  of  the  establishments  report 
Demand  for  that  their  business  could  be  much 

Designers  expanded  if  a  larger  supply  of  high- 

grade  designers  were  available. 
Experienced  designers  in  Europe  are  generally  sought  for 
when  experts  are  needed.  It  is  stated  that  neither  the  training 
needed  for  good  technicians  nor  the  artistic  atmosphere 
necessary  to  develop  designers  for  woven  laces  are  available 
on  this  side,  and  for  that  reason  the  opportunities  for  Ameri- 
cans in  this  field  have  been  limited  to  the  more  mechanical 
rendering  of  designs.  This  is  much  less  true  in  regard  to  Bon- 
naz  embroidery,  where  the  technical  processes  are  simpler  and 
impose  fewer  restrictions  upon  the  character  of  the  design. 

Seven  of  the  firms  are  of  the  opinion  that  designers  on  a 
regular  salary  tend  to  deteriorate  after  a  number  of  years. 
In  many  cases  every  effort  is  employed  to  stimulate  the  de- 
signers to  further  development  through  the  purchase  of 
books,  visits  to  museums  and  stores  on  the  company's  time, 
and  even  sending  them  abroad.  The  importation  of  garments 
brought  to  the  embroidery  and  lace  establishments  by  the 
manufacturers  to  serve  as  models  is  in  itself  a  source  of 
education  to  designers. 

All  establishment  representatives  are 
Training  of  the  opinion  that  a  satisfactory  and 

Recommended  by      eflPective  training  cannot  be  obtained 
Establishment        solely    through    art   schools.    They 
Representatives      uniformly  feel  that  to  train  effective- 
ly for  this  industry  a  school  must 
intimately  combine  instruction  in  design  and  in  craft  pro- 
cesses. Eight  of  the  firms  believe  that  students  in  such  schools 
should  perform  commercial  work  for  sale. 


TEXTILES  105 

Emphasis  is  laid  upon  the  importance  of  fertility  of  im- 
agination and  inventiveness  and  feeling  for  color  in  the  make- 
up of  the  designer.  A  background  of  artistic  culture  and 
knowledge  of  historic  ornament  are  emphasized  as  important 
elements  to  be  gained  through  training. 

One  of  the  persons  interviewed  believes  that  the  greatest 
promise  is  in  a  school  created  to  meet  the  special  require- 
ments of  the  embroidery  industry,  financed,  directed  and 
supervised  by  the  cooperation  of  the  establishments  inter- 
ested. Another  feels  that  opportunities  for  young  persons 
trained  in  this  country  are  not  great  in  this  line  and  that  we 
cannot  effectively  supply  a  training  equal  to  that  provided  in 
Switzerland. 

In  eleven  cases  it  is  felt  that  evening  classes  could  be  of 
service  to  the  trade  if  they  developed  ability  in  drawing, 
imparted  a  greater  knowledge  of  historic  motives,  and  incul- 
cated the  habit  of  searching  out  new  ideas. 

The  designers  consulted  uniformly 

Training  recommended  a  school  training  com- 

Recommended  by      bining    art    and    craft    instruction. 

Designers  Those  trained  in  Switzerland  favor 

an  art-school  training  for  two  years, 

from  fourteen  to  sixteen  years  of  age,  and  craft  and  design 

instruction  for  three  years,  from  sixteen  to  nineteen  years  of 

age. 

Museums  containing  collections  of 
Museum  embroideries  and  laces  are  considered 

Collections  an  element  of  extreme  importance 

to  designers.  The  museum  of  em- 
broideries at  St.  Gall  is  reported  in  many  cases  as  an  invalu- 
able source  of  ideas.  Original  samples  are  considered  as  of  the 
greatest  value  but  reproductions  and  photographs  are  noted 
by  many  as  extremely  helpful.  All  believe  that  such  a  museum 
should  provide  for  the  display  of  present-day  artistic  products. 
Six  state  that  the  Metropolitan  Museum  has  been  of  great 
assistance  in  this  field.  One  mentions  the  Museum  of  the 
Brooklyn  Institute  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  and  one  the  Museum 


io6  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

of  Natural  History.  One  representative  stated  that  the  war 
"drove  textile  designers  to  the  museums  and  opened  their 
eyes  to  the  supply  of  design  material  available  in  America." 
All  believe  that  museum  collections  should  be  open  in  the 
evening.  The  statement  is  made  that  while  the  textile  col- 
lections of  the  fine-arts  museum  serve  a  helpful  purpose,  there 
is  a  distinct  need  in  the  lace  and  embroidery  industry  for 
special  collections  made  up  of  laces  and  embroideries  not 
only  hand-made  but  representative  of  the  products  of  the 
modern  methods  of  manufacture. 

The  head  of  one  establishment,  making  and  executing 
embroidery  designs  for  high-grade  retail  and  wholesale  dress 
establishments,  expresses  the  opinion  that  a  museum  of 
modes  would  be  helpful.  Here  either  reproductions  or  original 
models  covering  all  periods  should  be  on  view.  Every  season 
Paris  models  should  be  brought  over  and  exhibited  during 
the  month  of  September.  Sketching  of  these  models  should 
be  freely  allowed.  A  charge  of  from  I40  to  ^50  might  be  made 
for  the  privilege  of  making  exact  copies.  The  more  typical 
models  should  be  kept  for  the  permanent  collection,  the  others 
sold  to  the  trade  at  the  end  of  the  exhibition  period. 

The  embroidery  and  lace  industry  is 
Summary  in  urgent  need  of  more  expert  de- 

signers and  stitchers.  It  stands  almost 
alone  as  an  industry  in  which  the  large  majority  of  skilled 
designers  and  technicians  are  the  products  of  a  particular 
type  of  school — in  this  case  the  highly  specialized  Kunstge- 
werbeschulen  atSt.Gall,  Switzerland,  and  atPlauen,Germany, 
in  which  instruction  in  design  is  intimately  connected  with 
instruction  in  the  technique  of  production. 

The  theoretical  solution  of  the  American  problem  would 
seem  to  be  quite  simple,  namely,  the  establishment  of  a 
similar  industrial  art  school  or  classes  in  the  center  of  produc- 
tion to  train  both  designers  and  technicians  for  this  particular 
trade.  To  be  effective,  however,  such  a  school  training  would 
necessarily  extend  through  a  period  of  four  or  five  years,  and 
the  question  presented  is  whether  American  youth  can  be 


TEXTILES  107 

persuaded  to  submit  to  such  an  extended  training  during 
years  some  of  which  are  commonly  devoted  to  wage  earning. 

Such  a  school  would  be  in  character  very  similar  to  a  tex- 
tile school,  and  experience  so  far  gained  in  this  country  would 
seem  to  indicate  that  only  a  very  few  young  persons  who  have 
latent  artistic  talent  and  wish  to  become  designers  care  to 
undertake  the  long  technical  training  needed  for  a  competent 
grasp  of  production  processes. 

It  is  possible,  however,  that  a  department  in  a  textile 
school,  specially  devoted  to  the  embroidery  and  lace  industry, 
to  which  a  liberal  measure  of  support  and  advisory  guidance 
is  contributed  by  the  trade,  would  go  far  in  solving  the  prob- 
lem for  this  country.  It  seems  quite  within  practical  possi- 
bilities that  an  embroidery  and  lace  department,  equipped 
with  the  necessary  machines  donated  by  the  trade,  could 
be  developed  in  the  Textile  High  School  now  maintained  by 
the  Board  of  Education  of  New  York  City,  upon  petition  to 
the  city  authorities  by  representatives  of  the  industry.  At 
present  pupils  who  have  had  two  years  of  high-school  work 
are  admitted  to  this  school.  Admission  to  the  embroidery 
and  lace  department  could  perhaps  be  made  contingent  upon 
high-school  work  in  which  instruction  has  been  had  in  the 
subjects  of  drawing,  color  and  design.  If  scholarships  offered 
by  the  trade  could  be  made  available  for  the  assistance  of 
promising  students,  it  is  possible  that  provisions  could  be 
developed  in  this  way  that  would  go  far  to  aid  the  situation 
in  the  embroidery  and  lace  industry. 

Note:  The  above  plan  was  thoroughly  approved  by  the  trade 
committee  on  laces  and  embroideries  in  conference  with  a  number 
of  other  trade  representatives  as  one  promising  practical  results  in 
developing  designers.  The  conference,  however,  was  unanimous 
in  feeling  that  such  a  plan  would  be  of  little  value  under  conditions 
at  present  obtaining  in  the  trade  until  an  effective  design-registra- 
tion or  copyright  law  is  passed  by  Congress,  that  will  prevent 
copying  of  designs  by  the  smaller  manufacturers. 


io8  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

WOOLENS 

In  the  woolen  industry  in  this  coun- 

Nature  of  the  try  designers  in  the  usual  sense  play 

Demand  but  a  minor  role  in  the  production  of 

FOR  Designs  goods.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that 

woolens  go  mainly  into  street  clothes 

for  men  and  women  in  which  surface  pattern  plays  but  a 

small  part  and  in  which  the  appeal  to  the  eye  is  gained  chiefly 

by  weave  texture  and  solid  colors.  Plaids  and  sport  skirts  for 

women  demand  more  color  and  emphasis  in  pattern,  but  with 

this  exception  American  woolen  goods  present  comparatively 

little  scope  for  surface  design. 

They  do  present,  however,  unlimited  opportunities  for 
fabric  design,  an  art  requiring  fully  as  much  skill  and  taste 
as  that  dealing  with  surface  patterns.  The  creation  of  such 
designs,  however,  is  almost  universally  in  the  hands  of  a 
styler  or  mill  manager,  and  the  designer  commonly  plays 
only  the  part  of  translator  in  making  the  working  design 
needed  for  production. 

In  men's  suitings  the  demand  for  high-grade  English 
woolens  has  operated  to  restrict  our  development  in  this  field. 
This  has  resulted  in  considerable  copying  of  English  patterns 
and  has  confined  American  opportunities  for  design  to  the 
less  expensive  fabrics.  In  woolens  for  all  types  of  women's 
clothing,  however,  we  have  reached  a  point  in  our  finest 
products  where  we  manufacture  goods  equal  both  in  variety 
and  beauty  of  weave  and  quality  of  fabric  design  to  those 
made  anywhere  in  the  world. 

The  climate  in  the  United  States,  with  our  hot  summers, 
tends  to  limit  the  use  of  fancy  or  sport  woolens,  and  the  large 
demand  for  women's  wear  is  for  solid  colors  in  which  the 
appeal  must  be  found  in  varied  texture  and  woven  effects. 
The  part  played  by  the  cutting-up  trade,  which  purchases 
and  operates  in  large  quantities,  also  exerts  an  influence  in 
this  direction,  inasmuch  as  plaid  and  other  fancy  cloths  can- 
not be  so  economically  dealt  with  as  those  of  plain  color. 


TEXTILES  109 

Of  the  fourteen  establishments  from 
Where  Designs        which  information  was  obtained  none 
ARE  Obtained  report  employing  designers  in  the 

usual  sense.  Translators  for  the  pro- 
duction of  working  designs  are,  however,  always  found  at  the 
mills.  The  element  of  design  in  woolens,  as  previously  noted, 
is  largely  confined  to  the  production  of  surface  texture  effects 
through  new  weaves  in  piece-dyed  goods  and  mixed  color 
effects  in  yarn-dyed  goods.  These  are  commonly  produced  by 
the  cooperation  of  a  styler  and  a  highly  trained  technical 
expert  or  designer  at  the  mill  who  thoroughly  understands 
the  many  varieties  of  cloth  structure  and  methods  of  produc- 
ing the  same. 

Commercial  studios  and  free-lance  designers  seem  to  play 
no  part  in  designs  for  the  woolen  industry. 

None  of  the  establishments  purchase  designs  directly  in 
Europe,  but  eleven  firms  utilize  foreign  samples  for  new  ideas 
and  modify  these  patterns  to  meet  the  demands  of  the  Ameri- 
can market. 

A  styler  usually  exists  in  the  large 

How  New  Designs      establishments.    He    is    sometimes 

are  Defined  found  at  the  mill,  but  generally  in 

the  city  office. 

Although  the  quality  of  the  fabric  depends  very  largely 

upon  the  judgment  and  taste  of  the  styler,  it  is  evident  that 

the  success  of  new  weaves  depends  to  an  extent  upon  the 

ability  of  the  mill  expert  to  carry  out  effectively  the  ideas  or 

indications  of  the  styler. 

In  twelve  cases  the  styler  was  developed  through  practical 
experience  gained  in  the  trade.  In  one  case  he  was  found  to  be 
a  graduate  of  the  Philadelphia  Textile  School  and  spoke  very 
highly  of  the  training  obtained. 

Cloth  designers  were  found  to  have 

Training  of  been  trained  either  in  the  industry 

Designers  or  in  textile  schools.  In  the  majority 

of  cases  the  mill  designers  had  been 

trained  in  England,  Scotland  or  Germany. 


no  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

The  fabric  designer  must  possess  a  thorough  knowledge  of 
cloth  structure  and  the  nature  of  the  various  weaves,  historic 
and  modern.  He  should  understand  modern  weaving  machin- 
ery and  methods  of  production.  On  the  artistic  side  it  is 
desirable  that  he  possess  a  feeling  for  texture  effects  in  woolen 
fabrics  and  a  sense  of  color. 

Salaries  reported  for  head  designers 
Remuneration  of      or  cloth  experts  range  from  $5,000 
Designers  per  year  upward. 

The  need  for  at  least  one  high-grade 
Demand  cloth  designer  in  each  establishment 

FOR  Designers         is  uniformly  emphasized. 

Very  often  little  is  demanded  of  the 
Training  designer  at  the  mill  except  expert 

Recommended  by      technical  knowledge.  In  only  four 
Establishment        instances  was  any  weight  given  to 
Representatives      possession  of  artistic  training,  color 
sense,  or  imagination  in  the  designer 
at  the  mill. 
In  a  large  number  of  cases  a  textile-school  education  is 
indicated  as  affording  the  best  training  for  designers  or  ex- 
perts in  this  field.  Up  to  the  present  time  the  character  of 
designs  for  woolens  has  offered  little  inducement  to  students 
in  such  schools  to  devote  time  to  the  study  of  design  and 
color.  The  demands  being  made  today  by  some  of  the  more 
important   houses   producing  women's   suitings,   however, 
would  seem  to  indicate  the  value  of  such  study. 

Six  of  the  establishments  state  that  evening  classes,  if 
located  where  available,  would  be  of  value  in  contributing 
some  artistic  appreciation  to  mill  designers  having  only  a 
technical  training. 

Five  establishments  state  that  mu- 

Museum  seums,  containing  textile  collections 

Collections  have  a  value  for  the  industry.  Other 

answers  indicate  that  such  collections 


TEXTILES  III 

are  considered  of  little  significance  for  the  woolen  trade.  Es- 
tablishments that  emphasize  the  value  of  museum  collections 
indicate  their  belief  that  both  original  examples  and  repro- 
ductions would  be  of  value. 

Little  interest  is  indicated  in  the  inclusion  of  present-day 
productions  in  such  collections. 

Woolens  represent   an    industry  in 
Summary  which  the  artistic  quality  is  at  pres- 

ent almost  wholly  dependent  on  a 
styler  or  manager  who  develops  the  fabric  design.  The  office 
of  the  designer,  so  called,  is  almost  entirely  confined  to  the 
translation  of  the  styler's  indications  into  working  designs 
for  the  loom.  Taking  into  account,  however,  the  increasing 
demand  for  finer  quality  of  goods,  the  situation  would  seem 
to  indicate  a  growing  need  for  designers  not  only  thoroughly 
trained  on  the  practical  side,  but  better  equipped  artistically. 
The  broadest  training  for  such  men  is  to  be  found  in  well- 
equipped  textile  schools  where  the  practical  training  can  be 
supplemented  with  instruction  in  design  and  color  looking 
to  the  special  requirements  of  woolen  fabrics.  Out  of  such  a 
specific  training,  supplemented  with  practical  experience,  it 
may  be  reasonably  expected  that  individuals  gifted  with 
special  artistic  training  will  appear  to  supply  the  needs  of  the 
establishments  producing  the  finer  grades  of  woolen  goods. 


FINE  JEWELRY 

It  should  be  noted  that  the  largest 

Nature  of  the        value  of  jewelry  is  often  represented 

Demand  for  Designs  by  mounted  gems,  in  which  case  the 

element  of  design  is  limited  to  set- 
tings and  additions  that  will  most  effectively  display  and  set 
forth  the  stones. 

The  demand  for  new  designs  is  to  a  large  extent  the  result 
of  trade  competition  for  novelty.  This  demand  is  felt  in  dif- 
ferent ways.  In  the  exclusive  establishments  it  is  experienced 
as  a  need  for  meeting  the  taste  of  fastidious  customers  and  to 
meet  this  demand  every  channel  is  searched  to  develop  new 
and  attractive  motives.  In  the  less  exclusive  concerns  the  de- 
mand is  usually  brought  to  the  establishments  through  the 
firm's  salesmen,  who  as  far  as  possible  reflect  the  mood  of  the 
buying  public.  Customers  and  jobbers  also  furnish  valuable 
information  as  to  what  is  desired  in  the  particular  markets 
they  supply. 

Fourteen  establishments  making  de- 

Where  Designs  are    signs  for  platinum  jewel  mountings 

Obtained  and  seven  specializing  in  the  making 

of  gold  jewel  mountings,  as  well  as 
thirteen  firms  making  fine  gold  jewelry,  were  studied. 

All  of  the  establishments  excepting  two  making  platinum 
jewel  mountings  and  four  making  gold  jewelry  employ  design- 
ers. In  the  case  of  the  platinum  concerns  it  was  reported  that 
thirteen  executives,  eighteen  designers,  two  shop  superintend- 
ents, one  ofiice  manager,  and  two  office  assistants  devote  all 
or  part  of  their  time  to  the  creation  of  new  designs  for  jewelry. 
Those  making  gold  mountings  reported  that  nine  executives, 
nine  designers,  three  shop  superintendents,  two  salesmen,  and 
two  craftsmen  devote  all  or  part  of  their  time  to  this  problem. 
In  the  case  of  fine  gold  jewelry  ten  executives,  five  designers, 
six  designer-craftsmen,  four  shop  superintendents,  one  assist- 
ant shop  superintendent,  and  seven  craftsmen  take  part  in 
this  work. 


114  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

In  platinum  jewel  mountings  six  jfirms  depend  entirely  upon 
their  own  designers  and  seven  purchase  designs  from  outside 
sources  in  this  country.  The  number  of  designs  ranges  from  a 
few  in  the  case  of  several  firms  to  about  seventy-five  per  cent, 
of  its  output  with  one  establishment.  All  of  these  represent- 
atives state  that  it  is  invariably  necessary  to  modify  these  de- 
signs before  they  can  be  used.  The  prices  paid  range  from  $i  to 
$5  and,  in  the  case  of  special  designs  involving  much  work,  as 
high  as  $50. 

In  goldjewel  mountings  no  purchases  of  designs  from  out- 
side sources  are  reported,  although  one  representative  states 
that  examples  of  jewelry  are  imported  for  suggestions. 

In  fine  gold  jewelry  two  firms  employing  no  designers  pur- 
chase all  of  their  designs  from  outside  sources.  In  two  other 
firms  one  of  the  executives  acts  as  designer.  One  of  these 
firms  buys  a  few  designs  from  outside  designers;  in  the  other 
all  designs  are  developed  in  the  establishment.  Of  the  remain- 
ing eight  firms  five  depend  entirely  upon  their  own  designers 
for  the  production  of  new  designs  and  three  purchase  a  por- 
tion of  their  designs  from  free-lance  designers  at  prices  rang- 
ing from  $1  to  I5.  Two  of  these  firms  state  that  they  buy  the 
tools  to  make  up  the  designs,  paying  from  I50  to  $150  per 
set.  The  designs  generally  require  modification  before  they 
can  be  used. 

Twenty-one  establishment  representatives  consider  free- 
lance designers  of  value  to  the  industry,  especially  in  the 
case  of  the  small  manufacturer.  Seven  representatives  believe 
that  the  existence  of  free-lance  designers  is  neither  desirable 
nor  valuable  under  the  present  conditions  of  marketing  de- 
signs. They  state  that  practices  which  develop  under  this 
system  both  on  the  part  of  manufacturers  and  designers  lead 
to  a  condition  of  mutual  distrust. 

In  the  case  of  platinum  jewelry  ten  firms  report  that  they 
purchase  designs  and  plates  from  Europe.  The  number  pur- 
chased by  the  firms  buying  for  reproduction  purposes  ranges 
from  a  few  to  twenty-five  per  cent,  in  the  case  of  one  firm's 
output.    Four  of  the  firms  do  not  use  these  designs  strictly 


FINE  JEWELRY  115 

for  reproduction  purposes  but  merely  as  suggestive  material. 
Six  of  the  representatives  do  not  consider  European  designs 
superior  to  those  obtainable  in  the  United  States  and  six 
think  that  they  are  more  artistic  but  often  impractical,  and 
one  states  that  they  are  often  not  so  good  but  that  they  are 
popular.  In  the  words  of  one  representative — "As  designs 
they  are  more  artistic  but  many  of  them  are  not  practical.  A 
design  must  have  stability,  utility  and  beauty.  The  French 
designer  considers  beauty  to  be  the  first  requisite  in  a  piece 
of  jewelry  and  often  impairs  its  usefulness  through  lack  of 
consideration  of  both  stability  and  utility." 

In  gold  jewel  mountings  no  designs  are  purchased  in  Europe 
but  two  of  the  representatives  state  that  they  buy  books, 
plates  and  artistic  publications  in  Europe  for  their  cultural 
value  and  for  suggestions. 

In  the  case  of  the  firms  specializing  in  fine  gold,  two  report 
that  they  buy  books  and  plates  in  Europe  which  might  be  of 
assistance  to  their  designers.  Two  others  purchase  designs  in 
Europe,  mainly  for  the  suggestions  they  offer.  Only  one  rep- 
resentative considers  European  designs  superior  to  those  pro- 
duced in  the  United  States,  stating  that  they  have  a  certain 
style  which  is  lacking  in  designs  made  here.  Another  repre- 
sentative states  that  French  designs  are  more  artistic  but  that 
they  are  not  practical  for  the  American  market. 

In  the  establishments  catering  to  exclusive  customers  every 
effort  is  made  to  make  the  designs  original  and  of  the  highest 
order  of  excellence.  In  those  dealing  with  the  more  general 
trade,  the  same  effort  is  made  but  freedom  of  design  is  here 
restricted  by  certain  limitations  of  machine  production.  In 
popular-priced  jewelry  the  quality  of  design  is  necessarily 
affected  materially  by  price  limits  and  the  requirements  of 
quantity  production. 

In  a  majority  of  the  establishments 

How  New  Designs     the  executive  defines  the  general  char- 

ARE  Defined  acter  of  the  designs  to  be  developed 

and  makes  suggestions  to  the  designer 

who  carries  out  his  instructions.  In  other  cases  the  charac- 


ii6  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

ter  of  the  design  is  decided  upon  by  conferences  between  the 
executive,  the  designer,  the  sales  manager,  sometimes  includ- 
ing the  shop  foreman.  Responsibility  for  new  designs  is  thus 
often  shared  by  a  number  of  persons. 

In  the  majority  of  cases  it  is  reported  that  the  success  of 
new  designs  depends  entirely  upon  the  executive  who  evolves 
the  motives.  In  a  few  cases  it  is  stated  that  this  depends  upon 
the  ability  of  the  designer  to  carry  out  the  executive's  in- 
structions. One  executive  states:  "The  designer  is  apt  to  be 
influenced  by  his  artistic  temperament  to  such  an  extent  that 
he  forgets  all  restrictions.  We  must  produce  goods  taking  into 
consideration  price  limits,  size  and  shape,  and  we  must  work 
under  fundamental  and  arbitrary  manufacturing  and  sales 
restrictions,  all  of  which  tend  to  limit  creative  effort." 

Inspiration  for  new  designs  is  gained  from  historic  motives, 
from  prevailing  fashions,  from  the  stones  which  are  to  be 
mounted,  from  European  designs,  plates  and  magazines,  from 
books,  museum  collections  and  artistic  material  of  all  kinds, 
from  high-grade  jewelry,  and  from  reports  of  salesmen. 

Seven  of  the  executives  responsible  for  the  designs  in  these 
branches  of  the  industry  were  trained  in  art  schools.  Three  of 
these  received  instruction  in  the  United  States  and  three  in 
Europe,  while  one  who  performs  all  of  the  designing  for  his 
firm,  studied  in  evening  art  classes  in  this  country  and  then 
went  to  Paris  where  he  studied  in  the  Ecole  des  Beaux-Arts 
for  two  years,  after  which  he  was  employed  as  head  designer 
for  several  years  in  a  large  establishment. 

The  returns  show  that  seventy  per  cent,  of  the  persons  re- 
sponsible for  the  character  of  the  design  motives  used  have  had 
no  art-school  training  and  of  the  executives  involved  seventy- 
six  per  cent,  have  had  only  practical  experience  in  the  trade. 

In  developing  the  designs  for  jewel 

Work  mountings  in  either  gold  or  platinum 

OF  Designers  usually  the  first  consideration  is  the 

number  and  placing  of  the  stones. 

Next,  the  period  to  be  used  is  decided  upon,  also  the  size  and 

general  shape  of  the  article.  With  the  indications  of  the  form 


FINE  JEWELRY  117 

desired  the  designer  develops  a  series  of  rough  sketches  and 
finally  a  finished  design  on  cardboard  or  celluloid.  It  is  fre- 
quently necessary  to  modify  the  design  slightly  to  meet  such 
requirements  as  price  limits  or  technical  processes. 

The  procedure  is  very  similar  in  the  case  of  design  for  gold 
jewelry.  In  this  case  the  designer  is  limited  more  by  popular 
taste  and  also  to  some  extent  by  the  requirements  of  machine 
production.  After  the  designs  are  developed,  tools  are  made 
for  cutting  in  quantities. 

A  large  proportion  of  the  designers  state  that  much  of  what 
they  consider  to  be  their  best  creative  work  from  the  stand- 
point of  design  and  which  they  insist  involves  no  unusual  tech- 
nical difficulties,  is  not  made  up  because  the  establishments 
will  not  accept  designs  that  depart,  in  any  marked  degree, 
from  what  their  competitors  are  producing. 

In  addition  to  the  executive  and  head  designer  in  some  es- 
tablishments the  finished  design  is  submitted  for  the  approval 
of  the  shop  superintendent  and  sales  manager,  each  repre- 
senting a  different  point  of  view  of  the  industry,  before  it  is 
made  up.  In  the  case  of  special  orders  a  sketch  is  usually  sub- 
mitted to  the  customer  for  approval.  In  some  instances 
samples  are  made  up  and  shown  to  the  trade  before  they  are 
produced  in  quantity. 

Information  was  obtained  in  regard 

Training  to  the  training  of  twenty-one  persons 

OF  Designers  who  create  designs  in  the  service  of 

twelveestablishmentsproducingplat- 

inum  jewel  mountings.  Of  these  fourteen  were  trained  in  the 

United  States  and  seven  in  Europe.  Of  those  trained  in  the 

United  States  four  were  trained  in  day  art  schools  and  ten  in 

commercial  practice.  Of  those  trained  in  commercial  practice 

two  attended  courses  in  evening  art  schools  and  two  had 

private  instruction.  All  of  the  designers  trained  in  Europe 

were  trained  in  art  schools,  some  of  the  schools  being:  Ecole 

des  Arts  Decoratifs,  Ecole  des  Beaux-Arts  and  Ecole  Boulle, 

in  Paris;  the  Industrial  Art  School  in  Budapest,  and  the 

Industrial  Art  School  in  Pforzheim,  Germany. 


ii8  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

In  the  case  of  the  nine  designers  employed  in  the  seven  es- 
tablishments producing  goldjewel  mountings,  five  were  trained 
in  the  United  States,  one  in  Canada,  and  three  in  Europe. 
The  designers  trained  in  the  United  States  were  developed 
mainly  in  commercial  practice,  two  of  whom  supplemented 
this  training  by  attendance  in  evening  art  schools.  The  three 
designers  trained  in  Europe  were  trained  in  art  schools. 

In  the  case  of  five  designers,  one  head  designer  who  is  also 
shop  superintendent,  and  six  designer-craftsmen  employed 
in  establishments  making  fine  gold  jewelry,  ten  were  trained 
in  the  United  States  and  two  in  Europe.  Of  those  trained  in 
the  United  States  three  attended  day  art  schools  and  seven 
were  developed  through  practical  experience  in  the  industry. 
Of  the  latter,  two  attended  evening  art  schools. 

Both  of  the  designers  trained  in  Europe  studied  in  the  art 
schools.  One  studied  first  in  evening  art  school  and  then  under 
private  teachers  in  Christiania,  Norway,  received  a  stipend 
from  the  Norwegian  government  for  proficiency  as  a  student, 
studied  in  Berlin  under  private  teachers  and  at  the  Hand- 
werterschule  and  later  had  private  instruction  under  gradu- 
ates of  the  Kunstgewerbeschule  at  Vienna.  The  other  designer 
studied  in  industrial  art  schools  in  Berlin  and  in  Nuremberg 
and  in  the  New  Industrial  School  at  Solingen,  Germany. 

The  designers  trained  in  Europe  almost  uniformly  state 
that  the  courses  were  taught  by  excellent  instructors  and  that 
the  training  was  adequate  and  thorough.  Criticisms  made  by 
the  students  trained  in  art  schools  in  the  United  States  are 
that  the  instructors  were  often  incompetent  and  received 
inadequate  salaries,  that  they  were  required  to  teach  too 
many  subjects  and  that  too  many  students  were  assigned  to 
one  instructor,  also  that  too  little  attention  was  paid  to  the 
technical  requirements  of  production. 

It  is  stated  by  twenty-four  establishment  representatives 
that  the  work  of  the  average  designer  employed  at  a  regular 
salary  tends  to  deteriorate  after  a  number  of  years,  while 
seven  take  the  opposite  view,  stating  that  this  depends  upon 
the  individual  and  the  conditions  under  which  he  works.  "A 


FINE  JEWELRY  119 

too  commercial  attitude  on  the  part  of  the  employer  makes  it 
impossible  for  any  designer  to  grow."  Several  employers 
state  that  no  designer  thrown  entirely  upon  his  own  resources 
and  tied  down  to  a  mechanical  routine,  can  be  expected  to 
grow. 

Another  representative  who  feels  that  this  depends  upon 
the  designer  states:  "A  lack  of  good  fundamental  training  in 
the  history  of  art  and  historic  ornament  coupled  with  a  dis- 
inclination toward  further  study  is  responsible  for  most  of 
the  failures." 

Thirteen  establishment  representatives  state  that  as  a  rule 
the  designer  does  not  pick  up  readily  the  technical  require- 
ments underlying  designs,  while  seventeen  others  state  that 
this  is  not  the  case  if  the  designers  are  given  proper  training 
and  encouragement  in  the  establishment. 

It  is  reported  by  fourteen  establishment  representatives 
that  the  application  of  shop  discipline,  scale  of  hours,  etc.,  is 
liable  to  cause  dissatisfaction  among  the  good  designers.  Nine 
report  that  this  is  not  the  case  in  their  establishments.  Thir- 
teen representatives  report  that  the  design  departments  are 
provided  with  separate  quarters  from  the  shop  force.  Six  re- 
port that  designers  are  not  held  to  strict  observance  of  shop 
discipline  or  office  hours. 

Among  the  practices  reported  by  establishment  repre- 
sentatives to  encourage  designers  to  greater  effort  in  their 
work  are  the  following:  six  firms  making  platinum  jewel 
mountings  send  their  designers  to  Europe.  One  firm  making 
gold  jewel  mountings  follows  the  same  practice.  Six  firms  pro- 
vide books  and  plates  for  reference.  Ten  give  their  designers 
opportunities  to  visit  museums  and  exhibitions  of  paintings, 
sculpture,  and  decorative  arts  as  well  as  retail  stores  to  study 
design  in  other  products  such  as  textiles,  costumes,  etc.  One 
representative  reports  that  recognition  of  efficient  work  is 
given  by  increasing  the  salary  or  a  stock  interest  in  the  firm. 

In  spite  of  the  liberal  attitude  noted  above  in  the  case  of 
many  establishments  and  the  number  of  individual  designers 
reporting  the  utmost  consideration  on  the  part  of  employers. 


I20  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

the  interviews  would  seem  to  indicate  that  much  contrast 
exists  between  different  employers  in  this  matter  and  that  in 
a  number  of  cases  little  or  no  recognition  is  given  to  the  de- 
signer's need  for  stimulus  and  inspiration  outside  of  his  office 
routine. 

Seventeen  representatives  report  that  they  employ  grad- 
uates from  art  schools  in  their  establishments.  It  is  stated, 
however,  that  it  is  often  necessary  to  correct  much  of  the 
training  that  the  students  have  received,  and  that  the  firm 
must  expend  considerable  time  in  instructing  and  coaching 
them  before  they  become  productive.  Such  beginners  are  paid 
about  I15  per  week. 

The  salaries  of  designers  are  reported 
Remuneration  of       to  range  from  I40  to  $200  a  week  in 
Designers  establishments  specializing  in  plati- 

num and  gold  jewel  mountings.  The 
average  salary  is  said  to  be  about  $80  a  week.  In  the  case  of 
gold  jewelry  the  salaries  reported  are  $2^  to  $125  per  week, 
the  average  being  about  $40  a  week.  There  would  seem  to  be 
no  general  scheme  of  salary  progression  in  the  majority  of  these 
establishments.  In  the  case  of  platinum  jewel  mountings 
three  of  the  firms  report  that  the  designer's  salary  is  raised 
semiannually  until  a  maximum  is  reached,  and  one  repre- 
sentative states  that  if  the  designer's  work  results  in  an  ex- 
pansion of  the  business  he  is  paid,  in  addition  to  his  salary,  a 
certain  percentage  of  the  increased  return. 

Seventeen  representatives  in   these 
Demand  three  branches  of  the  industry  report 

FOR  Designers  that  they  believe  that  the  business  of 
their  respective  firms  would  be  ex- 
panded if  a  larger  supply  of  skilled  designers  were  available. 
At  present  when  new  designers  are  needed  by  a  firm  they 
are  secured  through  recommendations  or  acquaintances,  by 
advertising,  through  art  schools,  or  from  Europe.  Five  repre- 
sentatives state  that  young  boys  employed  in  the  establish- 
ments who  ask  for  the  opportunity  or  show  an  inclination  to 
design  are  given  instruction  by  the  firm  and  developed  into 


FINE  JEWELRY  121 

designers.  The  majority  of  the  representatives  feel  that  these 
methods  are  not  satisfactory.  They  are  often  able  to  secure 
designers  with  talent,  but  the  necessary  fundamental  training 
is  usually  lacking  so  that  it  has  frequently  become  necessary 
to  turn  to  Europe  for  trained  designers. 

Eight  of  the  establishment  repre- 
Training  sentatives  express  the  conviction  that 

Recommended  by       present  art  schools  in  this  country 
Establishment        cannot  produce  designers  that   are 

Representatives  satisfactory  for  this  industry  but  that 
training  under  commercial  conditions 
is  essential.  On  the  other  hand,  twenty-four  representatives 
believe  that  the  necessary  training  could  be  acquired  in  indus- 
trial art  schools  if  the  commercial  requirements  of  jewelry 
designing  were  taken  into  consideration.  One  of  these  repre- 
sentatives states,  however,  that  he  believes  that  the  student 
would  benefit  by  having  a  year  of  shop  work  before  entering 
school.  One  believes  that  the  American  boy  as  a  potential  de- 
signer or  craftsman  is  superior  to  either  the  German  or  French 
boy  but  that  he  has  been  hampered  and  discouraged  by  a  lack 
of  competent  instructors  until  there  are  but  few  men  from  our 
own  schools  who  have  made  their  mark  in  the  industry. 
Another  feels  that  the  ideal  condition  would  be  found  in  a 
combination  of  school  and  practical  training,  i.  e.,  that  the 
student  should  devote  one  half  day  to  school  training  and 
should  spend  one  half  day  in  the  shop. 

It  is  stated  that  the  average  designer  employed  in  the 
establishments  studied  is  a  fairly  good  draftsman,  that  he 
often  possesses  good  taste  and  some  degree  of  inventiveness 
and  oftentimes  a  pretty  thorough  knowledge  of  historic 
ornament  but  that  he  lacks  fertility  of  imagination,  knowledge 
of  processes  and  materials  of  production,  and  breadth  of 
culture.  The  personal  qualities  most  needed  in  the  designer 
are  said  to  be  creative  imagination,  inventiveness,  sensitive- 
ness to  new  ideas  and  accuracy. 

A  background  of  artistic  culture,  knowledge  of  historic 
ornament,  facility  in  drawing  and  rendering,  including  model- 


122  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

ing,  and  understanding  of  technical  requirements  are  men- 
tioned as  the  equipment  which  should  be  developed  through 
training.  One  representative  emphasizes  the  conviction  that 
industrial  art  schools,  which  provide  coordinated  instruction 
in  the  artistic  and  mechanical  fundamentals  of  the  craft  are 
absolutely  necessary  if  the  jewelry  industry  is  to  prosper  and 
reach  a  healthy  condition. 

Another  representative  states  that  if  the  school  is  to  have 
any  permanent  value  only  the  most  competent  instructors  in 
their  special  fields  should  be  engaged  and  that  they  should 
receive  such  salaries  as  will  enable  them  to  live  without  the 
necessity  of  doing  outside  work  for  the  trade. 

Twenty-six  representatives  recommend  that  craft  work, 
dealing  with  the  elementary  processes  of  production  and 
decoration  be  a  feature  in  the  school  training,  whereas  seven 
feel  that  craft  work  should  not  be  taught,  one  stating  that  it 
would  be  detrimental  in  that  the  technical  knowledge  ac- 
quired would  hinder  a  free  expression  of  ideas. 

Opinion  is  divided  as  to  whether  students  should  perform 
commercial  work  for  sale  while  in  school,  ten  being  in  favor 
and  twenty-one  opposed.  Those  in  favor  believe  that  it  would 
be  desirable  because  it  would  tend  to  bring  the  student  in 
contact  with  trade  requirements,  would  help  him  to  realize 
that  his  work  has  actual  money  value,  and  would  also  tend 
to  show  whether  the  student  is  adapted  to  the  industry.  Those 
opposed  believe  that  the  school  should  not  be  conducted  as  a 
business  enterprise,  as  it  would  then  fail  to  fulfill  its  function 
as  a  school.  A  number  feel  that  the  student  should  concen- 
trate upon  his  studies  in  school  and  that  if  encouragement 
were  necessary  it  should  be  provided  in  the  form  of  prizes 
or  scholarships. 

It  is  felt  by  all  of  the  representatives  that  the  employer 
must  assume  responsibility  for  the  further  development  of 
the  designer  after  he  is  admitted  to  the  establishment.  One 
representative  states:  'Tt  is  imperative  that  the  employer 
assume  the  full  responsibility  for  the  designer's  further  devel- 
opment. Art  schools  can  lay  the  foundation,  but  as  each 


FINE  JEWELRY  123 

establishment  has  its  own  individual  design  and  technical 
problems  to  meet,  the  employer  must  give  the  required  assist- 
ance." 

With  but  few  exceptions  it  is  felt  that  designers  at  present 
employed  would  benefit  by  attendance  at  evening  art  classes 
provided  such  classes  are  in  charge  of  competent  instructors. 
The  feeling  is  generally  expressed  that  evening  classes  now  in 
existence  do  not  offer  instruction  that  is  valuable  to  the  young 
designer.  One  representative,  however,  considers  instruction 
in  evening  classes  so  important  that  he  states  that  he  would 
not  be  interested  in  employing  an  apprentice  who  did  not 
attend  an  evening  class,  that  the  jewelry  trade  will  get  no- 
where unless  apprentices  are  compelled  to  take  instruction 
somewhere  outside  the  shop  and  will  stick  to  their  positions 
until  they  learn.  Another  states  that  the  employer  must  be 
responsible  for  the  creation  of  a  desire  upon  the  part  of  his 
employees  to  take  advantage  of  such  classes.  Still  another 
representative  expresses  himself  on  this  point  as  follows: 
"Instruction  in  evening  classes  is  of  great  value.  Many  of  the 
boys  of  the  laboring  classes  are  excellent  and  ready  material 
for  designers  and  are  not  able  to  take  several  years'  work  in 
the  day  schools  for  financial  reasons.  Evening  classes  should 
be  provided  for  such  boys  and  the  courses  so  planned  that 
they  will  meet  the  needs  of  the  different  branches  of  the  in- 
dustry. Special  technical  training,  e.  g.,  engraving  or  chasing, 
should  not  be  given  until  the  student  has  finished  the  entire 
course  in  decorative  design." 

Those  who  are  not  in  favor  of  evening  instruction  state 
that  the  men  in  their  establishments  have  reached  a  stage 
where  they  would  find  little  of  value  in  evening  classes  unless 
something  of  more  than  ordinary  character  were  offered  and 
that  the  designer  needs  rest  and  relaxation  in  the  evening. 

Ten  designers  who  design  for  plati- 
Training  num,  three  for  gold  jewel  mountings. 

Recommended  by      and  four  for  fine  gold  jewelry  made 
Designers  recommendations  regarding  the  train- 

ing  of  designers   for  this  industry. 


124  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

The  foreign-trained  designers,  as  a  body,  feel  that  our  schools 
give  but  a  superficial  training  and  there  is  a  lack  of  close  co- 
operation between  the  trade  and  the  art  schools.  A  marked 
difference  was  exhibited  between  the  American  and  the 
foreign-trained  designer.  An  apparent  lack  of  confidence  was 
often  shown  in  the  interviews  on  the  part  of  designers  trained 
in  this  country  when  compared  with  the  foreign-trained 
designer  who  feels  that  he  has  had  a  substantial  art  education. 

The  designers  are  practically  a  unit  in  their  statement  that 
the  most  economical  and  effective  training  for  their  work  can 
be  had  through  a  general  course  in  the  decorative  or  applied 
arts.  Opinions  give  from  two  to  four  or  five  years  as  the  de- 
sirable length  of  course,  one  stating  that  if  the  instruction  were 
received  in  a  day  school  it  would  require  from  two  to  three 
years,  or  five  years  if  obtained  in  an  evening  school.  One 
designer  seems  to  favor  the  evening  school  as  a  means  of 
instruction  but  emphasizes  the  importance  of  having  com- 
petent instructors. 

It  is  felt  that  emphasis  should  be  placed  upon  work  in 
free-hand  drawing  from  casts,  life  and  nature;  modeling;  the 
study  of  color;  the  principles  of  design;  period  ornament; 
history  of  art;  and  the  elements  of  geometry.  Two  designers 
believe  that  the  principles  of  dynamic  symmetry  should  be 
included. 

Thirteen  express  the  belief  that  general  art  training  should 
precede  specialized  work  in  design.  A  majority  of  these 
believe  that  special  work  should  not  be  undertaken  until  the 
student  has  had  atleastoneortwoyearsof  general  art  training. 

Thirteen  designers  believe  that  craft  work  is  of  great  im- 
portance, especially  work  in  enameling,  chasing,  engraving 
and  repousse.  One  feels  that  this  work  should  be  undertaken 
during  the  last  six  or  nine  months  of  the  course.  Designers 
trained  abroad  and  who  have  had  shop  work  in  their  schools 
state  their  conviction  that  such  work  has  been  of  much  value 
to  them. 

In  answer  to  the  question  as  to  whether  it  is  considered 
desirable  to  have  design  students  in  art  schools  work  upon 


FINE  JEWELRY  125 

designs  for  the  market  during  their  training,  opinion  was 
found  to  be  almost  equally  divided.  Those  favoring  such  a 
scheme  believe  that  the  student  will  thereby  obtain  an  idea 
of  trade  requirements. 

Those  opposed  believe  that  the  course  of  study  should  be 
based  on  actual  trade  requirements  and  that  the  period  of 
school  training  should  be  fully  occupied  by  study.  Three 
recommend  that  money  prizes  or  medals  be  given  by  individ- 
ual firms  or  jewelers'  associations  in  order  to  stimulate  the 
student  and  encourage  him  to  do  practical  and  artistic  work. 

Answers  to  the  question,  "What  do  you  do  to  insure  growth 
and  renewed  capacity  for  your  work  in  design?"  show  that 
the  designers  most  often  resort  to  books  and  then  to  museums. 
A  number  of  designers  make  special  efforts  to  take  advantage 
of  artistic  exhibitions  and  study  designs  in  other  industries. 
Others  visit  the  theatre  or  make  a  special  study  of  fashions. 

A  number  of  designers  expressed  the  feeling  that  they  are 
isolated  outside  of  business  hours,  that  they  do  not  come  in 
contact  with  others  who  have  an  understanding  of  their  work 
and  that  when  perplexing  problems  arise  and  they  desire 
advice  or  the  opportunity  to  meet  others  who  could  offer 
encouragement,  they  find  that  they  have  only  themselves 
to  depend  upon. 

Twenty-six  representatives  express 
Museum  the  conviction  that  museum  collec- 

CoLLECTiONS  tions  of  source  material  are  of  great 

importance  in  the  development  of 
designs  and  designers  in  this  field.  It  is  felt  that  it  is  not 
essential  that  all  specimens  in  such  collection  be  originals  but 
that  reproductions  and  photographs  would  also  be  helpful. 
With  four  exceptions  the  representatives  express  the  belief 
that  present-day  artistic  products  should  be  displayed,  one 
stating  that  a  museum  or  department  in  a  museum  similar  to 
the  Musee  des  Arts  Decoratifs  and  a  salon  such  as  the  Expo- 
sition des  Beaux-Arts  in  Paris  would  be  of  value,  and  another 
expresses  the  opinion  that  such  a  display  would  help  educate 
the  public  and  the  retailer. 


126  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

Representatives  uniformly  feel  that  none  of  our  present 
museums  fulfill  the  need  that  exists  in  the  industry,  although 
several  state  that  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art  is  very 
helpful.  All  feel  that  collections  should  be  open  in  the  eve- 
ning. 

In  the  survey  of  the  jewelry  industry 
Education  a  special  study  was  made  as  to  possi- 

OF  Public  Taste  ble  ways  of  educating  the  public  to  a 
finer  appreciation  of  artistic  design 
in  this  field.  The  feeling  in  the  trade  is  unanimous  that  the 
present  state  of  public  taste  is  a  great  handicap  to  the  develop- 
ment of  finer  quality  in  jewelry  design.  A  large  majority  of 
representatives  feel  that  this  education  must  be  effected,  to 
a  considerable  extent,  through  the  retailer.  The  education  of 
the  retailer,  on  the  other  hand,  they  feel,  can  best  be  achieved 
through  the  manufacturer's  salesmen. 

The  following  answer  given  is  endorsed  by  many :  "No  cam- 
paign to  educate  the  retailer  and  his  staff"  to  a  higher  appreci- 
ation of  jewelry  as  an  art  will  meet  with  success  unless  it  is  con- 
ducted, at  least  in  part,  through  the  salesmen  sent  out  by  the 
manufacturer.  Salesmen  in  the  jewelry  industry  have,  as  a 
class,  little  knowledge  of  the  artistic  value  of  the  product  they 
sell,  and  the  first  step  should  be  the  education  of  these  men. 
Lecture  courses  covering  the  fundamental  principles  of  the 
decorative  arts,  with  special  reference  to  our  industry,  given 
in  museums,  schools,  libraries  and  establishments,  would 
prove  to  be  of  great  value  and  the  intimate  point  of  contact 
between  the  salesman  and  the  retailer  would  result  in  such 
knowledge  being  passed  on,  not  only  to  the  retail  trade,  but 
also  through  it  to  the  general  public."  Those  supporting  the 
belief  that  properly  trained  salesmen  can  aid  in  solving  this 
problem  give  the  following  reasons:  first,  the  salesmen  fur- 
nish a  well-established  means  of  communication  between  the 
manufacturers  and  the  retail  trade;  second,  they  furnish  the 
personal  contact  which  is  believed  to  be  necessary  if  any  large 
results  are  to  be  obtained;  third,  in  selecting  his  stock  the 
retailer^depends,  in  a  large  measure,  upon  the  judgment  of 


FINE  JEWELRY  127 

those  salesmen  in  whom  he  places  confidence;  fourth,  the 
salesmen  can  be  made  a  power  in  influencing  public  demands, 
for  the  average  retailer,  in  his  dealings  with  the  public,  simply 
repeats  the  most  convincing  arguments  advanced  by  the 
salesmen;  fifth,  that  such  a  course  would  follow  the  line  of 
least  resistance. 

A  number  believe  that  artistic  and  intelligent  advertising 
would  be  helpful  but  are  of  the  opinion  that  much  of  the 
advertising  used  at  the  present  time  is  cheap  and  ineffective. 
They  believe  that  in  developing  any  general  educational  plan 
of  this  kind  the  industry  should  consult  experts  in  advertis- 
ing. 

The  trade  magazines  in  the  industry  are  severely  criticized 
by  a  large  majority  of  those  interviewed.  The  following 
comments  made  illustrate  the  general  opinion:  "Such  trade 
organs  as  we  have  at  present  are  of  little  value  and  an  entire 
change  of  policy  on  their  part  is  imperative  if  they  are  to  aid 
in  developing  a  higher  artistic  standard  in  the  industry.  Too 
much  emphasis  is  placed  upon  the  petty  details  of  the  trade 
that  are,  at  best,  of  but  local  interest  and  inspiration,  and  a 
broad  and  forward-looking  attitude  is  made  conspicuous  by 
its  absence.  Trade  magazines  noted  in  other  industries  are 
far  superior  to  those  oflFered  the  jeweler." 

"The  trade  journals  of  the  industry  are  open  to  criticism. 
They  confine  themselves  largely  to  'town  gossip'  and  unim- 
portant commercial  and  financial  details  and  there  is  much 
criticism  in  the  trade  over  their  lack  of  artistic  make-up  and 
progressive  ideas.  It  is  generally  felt  that  they  do  not  compare 
in  value  with  the  trade  papers  current  in  other  industries." 

Well  written  articles  in  art  magazines  not  directly  identified 
with  the  jewelry  trade  are  advocated  as  an  effective  method 
of  reaching  an  influential  section  of  the  reading  public. 

One  other  method  to  reach  the  public  advocated  by  many 
is  through  exhibitions  of  jewelry.  In  answer  to  the  question: 
"Would  you  be  willing  to  cooperate  in  developing  annual 
exhibitions  of  jewelry?"  over  eighty  per  cent,  of  those  inter- 
viewed answer  "Yes." 


128  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

More  than  any  other  product  studied 
Summary  by  the  Survey,  jewelry  may  be  con- 

sidered as  an  article  of  luxury.  It  is 
also  an  article  of  personal  adornment.  For  these  reasons  it 
would  seem  that  jewelry  above  all  other  types  of  applied  art 
should  find  its  proper  expression  only  in  examples  of  fine 
artistic  quality.  That  this  is  not  true  to  a  large  degree  at  the 
present  time  is  apparent. 

The  present  unsatisfactory  condition  is  evidenced  first  of 
all  by  the  great  extent  to  which  the  trade  is  committed  to  the 
practice  of  copying  rather  than  of  originating  new  designs. 
Among  the  few  concerns  making  the  highest  grade  and  most 
expensive  jewelry  every  effort  is  made  to  produce  designs  of 
individual  and  superior  quality,  but  below  this  point  the 
practice  of  copying  and  adapting  and  not  creating  becomes 
more  and  more  the  rule.  This  hesitation  in  putting  forth 
original  material  seems  to  be  largely  due  either  to  timidity  as 
to  the  market  success  of  new  designs  or  to  lack  of  confidence 
in  the  artistic  capability  of  present  designers.  It  is  probably 
due  in  part  to  the  natural  caution  of  the  executive  with  a 
business  training  and  also  to  some  extent  to  the  fact  that 
these  executives  have,  in  most  cases,  had  no  art  training 
themselves. 

Other  considerations  undoubtedly  affect  the  situation. 
Women,  as  has  been  stressed  in  the  foreword  of  this  report, 
have  developed  a  high  order  of  discrimination  as  to  the  ap- 
propriate and  becoming  in  the  matter  of  dress,  but  it  would 
seem  safe  to  say  that  their  appreciation  of  the  aesthetic  is  far 
less  in  the  matter  of  jewelry.  The  reasons  are  not  far  to  seek. 
The  expense  and  permanent  character  of  jewelry  forbids  fre- 
quent changes  and  consequent  adaptation  to  different  cos- 
tumes. At  the  same  time  the  aesthetic  effects  of  jewelry  are 
more  delicate  and  subtle  than  is  the  case  in  dress. 

Another  element  in  the  situation  is  the  fact  that  the  Ameri- 
can woman  purchases  jewelry  very  largely  on  the  basis  of  the 
intrinsic  value  of  the  gems  involved.  She  gives  very  little 
study  to  the  possibilities  of  color  and  form  in  jewelry  as 


FINE  JEWELRY  129 

related  to  appearance  and  dress.  One  example  that  may  be 
cited  is  the  case  of  semi-precious  stones.  The  decorative  color 
values  of  such  stones  are  not  generally  appreciated  and  at  the 
present  time  are  mainly  used  in  craft  jewelry  which  is  often 
poorly  made. 

Whatever  the  difficulties  may  be  in  developing  a  plan  for 
the  better  training  of  craftsmen  and  designers,  the  needs  of 
the  situation  would  seem  fully  to  warrant  serious  considera- 
tion of  this  problem  by  the  trade. 

The  value  to  be  gained  from  designs  of  greater  novelty 
and  greater  beauty  would  seem  to  be  more  evident  in  the 
jewelry  trade  than  in  almost  any  other.  Jewelry  is  not  a 
staple,  it  is  an  article  of  adornment,  and  what  is  true  of  all  art 
industries  is  peculiarly  true  in  this  case.  The  market  is  not  a 
fixed  quantity  but  is  extensible  according  to  the  attractive- 
ness of  the  product.  The  quality  of  design  is,  accordingly,  a 
particularly  important  asset,  considered  from  the  purely  busi- 
ness standpoint. 

The  development  and  holding  of  an  export  trade  depends 
also  to  a  very  large  extent  upon  the  quality  of  design.  To 
market  jewelry  successfully  in  other  countries  means,  first  of 
all,  that  the  quality  of  design  must  be  adapted  to  the  taste 
of  the  particular  country  and  to  the  individuals  in  that 
country.  This  requires  well-equipped  designers  possessing 
knowledge  as  well  as  taste. 

The  present  situation  in  regard  to  the  training  of  designer 
and  the  relation  of  this  situation  to  the  trade  is  unquestion- 
ably not  satisfactory.  On  the  one  hand,  there  would  appear 
to  be  but  two  schools  in  the  country  that  provide,  in  a  com- 
prehensive way,  under  competent  instructors,  the  needed 
specialized  artistic  training  coupled  with  instruction  calcu- 
lated to  give  an  understanding  of  the  processes  of  production. 
On  the  other  hand,  opportunities  of  supplementing  and 
rounding  out  school  training  under  practical  conditions  are 
in  general  not  adequate  inasmuch  as  but  few  manufacturers 
have  developed  a  willingness  to  take  graduates  of  applied- 
art  schools  into  their  design  rooms  and  afford  them  the  sys- 


I30  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

tematic  instruction  which  is  needed  for  their  full  develop- 
ment. 

The  provision  of  adequate  school  training  for  jewelry 
designers  represents  a  difficult  problem.  It  is  much  the  same 
problem  as  that  presented  in  a  number  of  other  industries. 
The  number  of  designers  needed  is  not  large.  Only  centers  of 
jewelry  production  like  New  York  City,  Newark,  Providence, 
Chicago  and  Cincinnati  could  conceivably  support  day- 
school  courses  in  this  field.  It  is  the  uniform  testimony  of 
trade  representatives  that  no  school  can  be  at  all  effective  in 
developing  high-grade  jewelry  designers  unless  it  is  officered 
by  thoroughly  competent  and  experienced  instructors.  On 
the  other  hand,  it  is  the  very  general  conviction  of  the  trade 
that  such  school  courses  should  include  sufficient  instruction 
in  craft  work  to  give  an  understanding  of  the  technical  re- 
quirements of  production.  This  means  expensive  equipment 
and  somewhat  expensive  materials. 

The  question  of  support  of  such  a  school  is,  consequently, 
of  prime  importance.  The  Rhode  Island  School  of  Design  at 
Providence  receives  assistance  from  the  manufacturing 
jewelers  of  that  locality  and  its  jewelry  courses  have  achieved 
results  which  have  met  with  the  warm  approval  of  the  trade. 
The  jewelry  department  of  the  school  is  splendidly  housed  and 
equipped  and  its  teaching  force  for  the  most  part  are  experts 
employed  in  the  local  establishments.  The  school  is  located, 
however,  in  a  district  which  does  not  produce  the  finest  type 
of  jewelry,  but  in  which  a  large  amount  of  inexpensive  jewelry 
is  manufactured. 

The  natural  opportunity  of  the  school,  consequently,  is  to 
train  for  the  production  side  of  the  industry  with  only  inci- 
dental reference  to  the  development  of  designers.  Throughout 
all  the  courses,  however,  instruction  in  design  has  a  place  to 
the  end  that  the  potential  designer  may  be  encouraged  and 
a  feeling  of  beauty  developed  in  the  work  of  the  craftsman. 
To  this  function  the  school  is  most  ably  addressing  itself  and 
is  performing  a  service  of  utmost  value  to  the  local  industry. 

In  New  York  City  the  conditions  are  very  dissimilar.  This 


FINE  JEWELRY  131 

city  is  the  merchandising  center  of  the  jewelry  trade  and, 
furthermore,  produces  the  highest  grade  of  jewelry.  The  need 
of  the  well-equipped  designer  is  here  of  the  first  consequence. 

Pratt  Institute  has  since  1901  maintained  a  class  in  jewelry 
design  and  craft  work  from  which  a  number  of  designers  and 
craft  workers  have  entered  the  trade.  In  spite  of  the  admirable 
work  performed  by  this  class,  there  seems  to  be,  in  the  opinion 
of  the  trade,  a  definite  place  and  demand  for  some  training 
provision  in  the  Borough  of  Manhattan. 

The  greatest  need  of  the  industry,  as  expressed  by  many 
of  its  leaders,  lies  in  the  development  of  a  comparatively  few 
designers  possessing  both  a  high  order  of  talent  and  sound 
artistic  training.  For  the  training  of  such  designers  several 
years  of  contact  with  the  best  the  country  can  offer  in  the 
way  of  artistic  instruction  and  intimate  acquaintance  with 
museum  collections  and  other  source  material  would  seem 
to  be  essential.  Breadth  of  artistic  culture  and  inspiration  is 
the  first  requisite  in  the  education  of  such  workers.  On  such 
a  foundation  should  be  provided  opportunities  for  specialized 
study  of  jewelry  design  under  thoroughly  competent  and 
trained  instructors.  Evidently  a  training  of  this  kind  can  be 
made  possible  in  effective  terms  only  through  a  day  course 
requiring  several  years  of  application. 

The  development  of  such  a  scheme  of  instruction  involves 
a  number  of  considerations.  In  the  first  place,  it  is  not  an  easy 
matter  for  young  men  desiring  to  become  jewelry  designers 
to  attend  a  school  of  this  type  for  a  number  of  years  without 
wages.  The  numbers  of  high-grade  individuals  that  can  be 
reached  through  such  a  plan  will  consequently  be  small. 

The  question  of  direction  and  support  is  also  important. 
Direction  and  support  by  the  manufacturers  would  insure 
expert  training  such  as  is  needed  to  meet  the  trade  require- 
ments; or  at  least  training  that  is  thought  by  the  trade  neces- 
sary to  meet  the  practical  requirements  of  the  situation.  On 
the  other  hand,  there  are  features  which  develop  some  ques- 
tions as  to  the  wisdom  of  such  a  plan.  In  the  first  place  pro- 
vision for  such  training  would  entail  considerable  cost  in  the 


132  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

matters  of  housing,  equipment  and  maintenance.  Further- 
more, in  the  administration  of  such  a  school  or  course  there 
is  some  danger  that  the  practical  side  of  the  designer's  train- 
ing will  be  emphasized  at  the  expense  of  cultural  development. 
In  such  case  the  instruction  is  liable  to  issue  in  a  narrow  or 
limited  training,  not  consistent  with  the  highest  equipment 
of  the  designer.  It  is  also  true  that  the  administration  of  such 
a  plan  is  liable  to  be  dominated  by  one  or  two  persons  from 
the  trade  who  may  be  swayed  by  special  convictions  and 
prejudices. 

These  considerations  raise  the  question  as  to  whether  such 
work  could  not  be  as  well  or  better  accomplished  in  a  school 
which  would  enter  into  some  cooperative  arrangement  or 
contract  with  the  jewelers  of  the  city  that  would  insure  a 
sound  and  broad  scheme  of  training.  In  such  a  case  it  might 
be  possible  that  the  necessary  equipment  could  be  donated 
by  the  trade  as  in  the  case  of  the  Rhode  Island  School  of 
Design.  It  might  be  possible,  furthermore,  that  a  contribution 
to  the  maintenance  of  such  a  school  could  be  made  in  the 
form  of  scholarships  subscribed  by  the  trade. 

Such  a  plan  has  certain  evident  advantages  outside  the 
question  of  cost.  Under  such  a  plan  students  could  be  assured 
sound  general  art  training;  they  would  be  liable  to  benefit 
by  the  liberal  influence  of  the  other  courses  maintained  by 
the  institution,  by  contact  with  the  other  students  and  also, 
possibly,  through  museum  collections.  Such  courses,  if  suc- 
cessfully and  effectively  developed,  would  also  be  liable  to 
attract  students  from  other  fields  of  work  in  such  an  institu- 
tion. 

If  any  cooperative  scheme  is  adopted  it  is  of  the  greatest 
importance  that  the  supervision  and  cooperation  of  the  trade 
be  furthered  by  provisions  for  an  advisory  committee  from 
the  trade  that  could  enter  into  intimate  relations  with  the 
work  of  the  school. 

Outside  of  the  possibilities  of  such  a  plan  is  both  the  need 
and  the  opportunity  of  nurturing  the  latent  talent  already  en- 
listed in  the  industry.  A  practical  scheme  that  will  reach  the 


FINE  JEWELRY  133 

young  designers  and  craftsmen  and  afford  them  instruction  not 
readily  gained  under  commercial  conditions  would  probably 
produce  more  immediate  results  and  affect  larger  numbers 
than  is  possible  through  the  first  plan. 

It  would  seem  possible  that  a  scheme  of  part-time  instruc- 
tion might  be  developed  that  would  reach  the  craftsmen  and 
young  designers  already  in  the  industry  provided  manufac- 
turers will  grant  the  time  requisite  for  such  instruction  with- 
out loss  of  wages  and  provided  further  that  the  employers 
will  guarantee  continuance  of  such  workers  in  school  for  a 
period  of  years.  An  important  advantage  that  inheres  in  a 
part-time  plan  is  the  fact  that  the  participation  of  employers, 
so  essential  to  the  successful  functioning  of  a  school  for  train- 
ing designers,  is  liable  to  be  enlisted  much  more  in  such  an 
undertaking  if  the  students  are  from  their  own  establishments 
rather  than  beginners,  unconnected  directly  with  their  eco- 
nomic interests. 

The  part-time  plan  undoubtedly  presents  real  difficulties 
to  the  employer,  but  it  would  also  seem  to  present  elements  of 
such  real  value  as  to  warrant  serious  consideration.  Whether 
the  part-time  plan  could  best  be  operated  on  the  basis  of  a 
half  day  attendance  in  the  factory  or  designing  room  and  a 
half  day  in  the  school,  or  on  a  basis  of  perhaps  three  half  days 
in  the  school,  is  a  matter  of  question.  Whether  all  apprentices 
in  the  shop  and  all  beginners  in  the  designing  room  between 
the  ages  of  sixteen  and  eighteen  should  be  sent  to  such  a 
school,  or  whether  only  selected  employees  showing  talent 
should  have  the  advantage  of  such  an  opportunity  are  also 
open  questions. 

As  a  result  of  these  considerations  the  following  recom- 
mendations are  made  with  reference  to  the  situation  in  New 
York  City  inasmuch  as  this  situation  seems  to  present  both 
the  greatest  need  and  the  greatest  opportunity  for  further 
means  of  training  jewelry  designers : 

(i)That  a  graduate  class  in  jewelry  design  officered  by 
thoroughly  competent  and  talented  instructors  be  developed 
in  some  existing  institution  in  New  York  City  through  co- 


134  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

operation  between  the  institution  and  one  of  the  trade  organi- 
zations in  the  jewelry  industry;  that  such  a  course  be  opened 
to  students  who  have  already  had  at  least  two  years  of  train- 
ing in  an  all-day  art  school;  that  the  equipment  deemed  neces- 
sary to  provide  instruction  in  or  illustrate  productive  processes 
be  supplied  by  the  trade  organization;  that  the  length  of  course 
in  the  school  be  two  years  and  the  number  of  students  limited 
to  twenty-five ;  that  scholarships  payable  to  the  school  be 
provided  by  the  trade  amounting  to  a  total  of  at  least  $5,000; 
that  the  instruction  be  conducted  and  supervised  by  the  school 
administration;  that  there  be  a  school  committee  appointed  by 
the  trade  organization  to  cooperate  with  the  administration  of 
the  school;  that  the  approval  of  this  committee  be  necessary 
as  to  the  appointment  of  the  instructor,  the  plan  of  instruc- 
tion and  methodof  awarding  scholarships;  that  thiscommittee 
shall  observe  frequently  the  instruction  provided  and  the  results 
obtained  and  shall  make  bi-monthly  reports  to  the  organization 
as  to  the  progress  of  the  work  and  advise  as  to  its  continuance. 

In  considering  such  a  proposition  it  should  be  recognized 
that  the  successful  maintenance  of  such  a  class  is  practicable 
only  on  condition  that  the  industry  will  recognize  the  need 
for  such  advanced  training  and  will  stand  ready  to  reward 
sufficiently  in  a  material  way  the  graduates  of  such  a  course. 
It  should  be  noted  that  if  a  class  on  the  above  lines  could  be 
established  and  should  gain  recognized  standing,  it  would  be 
possible  to  exercise  careful  selection  in  the  matter  of  admit- 
ting applicants,  and  in  this  way,  develop  a  class  of  high-grade 
material. 

One  other  provision  that  would  seem  of  prime  importance 
in  this  connection  is  the  establishment  on  the  part  of  the 
manufacturers  of  one  or  two  scholarships  to  be  awarded  to 
the  most  promising  graduates  of  such  a  class,  which  should 
allow  travel  and  study  abroad  for  the  period  of  a  year. 
Scholarship  provision  of  this  kind  added  to  the  scheme  of 
instruction  above  outlined  would  go  far  to  gain  wide  recog- 
nition for  the  plan  as  a  whole  and  to  insure  a  permanent  and 
effectivemeansof  developing  the  needed  talent  for  the  industry. 


FINE  JEWELRY  135 

(2)  That  the  possibilities  of  a  plan  providing  part-time 
training  for  young  craftsmen  and  designers  be  thoroughly 
investigated  by  an  appropriate  trade  body,  such  as  the  Jewelry 
Crafts  Association,  to  the  end  that  a  plan  of  training  which 
would  insure  continuous  attendance  of  young  workers  without 
loss  of  wages  for  a  period  of  several  years  and  that  would  at 
the  same  time  minimize  the  danger  that  such  students  be 
induced  to  change  employers  during  their  period  of  schooling 
be  evolved.  The  practical  possibilities  for  carrying  out  such 
a  plan  evidently  depend  upon  united  action  and  approval 
by  the  appropriate  local  association  of  employers. 

Outside  of  the  question  of  day-school  instruction  with  its 
limited  field,  there  is  unquestionably  a  large  need  for  evening 
class  instruction  in  local  centers  of  production.  To  meet  the 
situation  effectively  as  much  care  should  be  exercised  in  the 
selection  of  thoroughly  competent  instructors  as  in  the  case 
of  the  day  schools.  Criticism  has  been  leveled  at  some  of  the 
evening  schools  as  providing  only  commonplace  instruction 
which  does  not  attract  the  best  material  among  the  working 
force.  Evening  classes,  to  be  successful,  and  to  attract  the 
right  kind  of  material,  must  always  be  taught  by  men  of 
superior  ability  and  experience.  Such  classes  as  well  as  those 
in  a  day  school  should  have  the  advantage  of  close  cooperation 
and  supervision  of  representatives  of  the  trade. 

One  other  matter  that  has  been  emphasized  by  a  number 
of  trade  representatives  perhaps  needs  special  attention  in 
the  jewelry  trade,  namely,  the  need  both  for  according  a 
certain  amount  of  freedom  to  the  jewelry  designer  and  for 
special  efforts  to  provide  for  him  stimulus  and  inspiration. 
It  would  seem  to  be  evident  that  in  those  cases  where  the 
designers  have  been  treated  not  simply  as  elements  of  the 
factory  organization  but  as  producing  artists  a  valuable 
return  has  accrued  to  the  employer.  The  practice  in  this 
regard  would  seem  to  be  extremely  varied.  As  noted  in  the 
findings,  some  establishments  have  reported  exceedingly 
far-sighted  provisions  in  this  matter,  including  the  sending  of 
designers  to  Europe,  opportunities  for  visiting  the  opera. 


136  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

theatrical  performances,  exhibitions  of  paintings  and  the 
decorative  arts,  and  liberal  policies  regarding  hours  and  sur- 
roundings, while  others  deal  with  the  designer  apparently  in 
no  way  differently  from  the  other  workers  in  the  shop  force. 
It  would  seem  to  be  clear,  if  creative  work  of  a  high  order 
is  to  be  expected  from  designers,  that  opportunities  for  stimu- 
lus and  inspiration  should  be  afforded  them  and  that  these 
provisions  must  be  regarded  as  legitimate  and  essential 
elements  of  a  wise  administrative  policy. 

The  jewelry  situation,  furthermore,  would  seem  to  stand  in 
particular  need  of  further  education  of  the  public  taste  as 
regards  jewelry  design.  Trade  representatives  who  have 
given  most  thought  to  the  matter  seem  to  be  particularly 
united  in  feeling  that  effort  in  this  direction  should  take  two 
lines:  one,  the  education  of  the  retailer,  and  one  the  direct 
education  of  the  public.  The  education  of  the  retailer,  it  is 
believed,  can  best  be  effected  through  the  influence  of  the 
manufacturers'  salesmen,  and  the  first  step,  in  consequence, 
should  be  an  effort  to  educate  these  men.  This  problem  would 
seem  to  be  most  readily  approached  through  lecture  courses 
dealing  with  period  design,  with  special  reference  to  costume 
and  jewelry  design.  Such  lectures,  as  has  been  pointed  out 
in  the  study  of  carpets  and  rugs,  can  easily  be  developed  if 
the  salesmen  interested  in  the  art  industries  can  be  organized 
in  the  various  producing  localities.  With  such  organizations 
cooperation  can  be  readily  secured  with  museums  or  art 
schools  to  present  the  necessary  lectures  at  appropriate  times. 
With  the  sympathetic  cooperation  of  employers'  associa- 
tions such  lectures  could  undoubtedly  be  illustrated  with 
material  of  great  value  and  suggestiveness. 

In  the  matter  of  more  direct  methods  to  educate  the  public 
taste  the  development  of  a  high-grade  magazine  devoted 
largely  to  presenting  the  artistic  side  of  jewelry,  both  historic 
and  contemporary,  through  illustrations  and  articles;  adver- 
tising in  popular  magazines;  articles  in  art  magazines  and 
organization  of  public  exhibitions  of  jewelry,  would  all  seem 
to  have  an  important  place.  If  a  magazine  of  the  above 


FINE  JEWELRY  137 

character  is  impracticable,  there  is  every  reason  to  believe 
that  a  section  in  one  of  the  leading  art  periodicals  could  be 
reserved  for  the  interests  of  the  jewelry  trade  provided  the 
trade  would  guarantee  to  furnish  subject  matter  and  illus- 
trations regularly  to  fill  such  a  section. 


MEDIUM  AND  LOW-GRADE  JEWELRY 

(Comprising  14  and  10  karat  gold,  gold  plated, 
gold  filled  sterling,  silver  and  brass) 

Design,  from  the  standpoint  of  orig- 

Nature  of  the         inal  creation,  plays  a  secondary  role 

Demand  for  in  low-grade  jewelry.  Economic  pro- 

Designs  duction  by  means  of  the  machine  is 

the  first  consideration. Time, material 
and  quality  of  labor  are  all  important  considerations.  Because 
of  this  dependence  on  machine  production,  establishments 
largely  confine  themselves  to  fixed  patterns.  Only  about  ten 
per  cent,  of  their  sample  lines  are  so-called  novelties.  The 
rest  are  the  same  standard  patterns  that  have  been  in  use  for 
many  years. 

Establishment  representatives  admit  that  the  aesthetic 
and  artistic  standard  of  their  product  is  very  low  and  are 
greatly  interested  in  developing  and  raising  their  market  to 
a  higher  artistic  level,  but  as  long  as  the  public  demand  stays 
what  it  is,  they  claim  that  there  remains  no  other  course  than 
to  supply  the  kind  of  patterns  that  have  proven  salable  or 
to  close  their  establishments. 

Fifteen  establishments  making  com- 

Where  Designs  are    mercialjewelry,  thatis,  14  or  10  karat 

Obtained  gold  rings,  pins,  brooches,  pendants, 

watches,  bracelets,  etc.,  and  nine 
firms  making  plated  jewelry  were  studied. 

Only  three  firms  report  that  designers  are  employed  in  their 
establishments,  that  is,  designers  who  work  on  paper  or  in 
wax.  In  one  firm  the  superintendent,  who  is  also  a  practical 
jeweler,  develops  new  designs  and  might  be  called  the  designer; 
in  another  firm,  where  it  is  reported  that  no  designers  are 
employed,  two  of  the  executives  do  most  of  the  designing 
but  there  are  also  three  other  persons  in  the  establishment 
who  devote  some  time  to  this  work.  In  almost  all  of  the  other 


I40  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

firms  there  are  practical  jewelers  who  develop  all  or  most  of 
the  designs  produced. 

One  firm  making  plated  jewelry  and  one  making  commer- 
cial jewelry  buy  designs  from  outside  sources  in  this  country, 
mainly  for  the  ideas  represented.  It  is  reported  that  the 
prices  of  these  designs  range  from  fifty  cents  to  $5.  They  gen- 
erally have  to  be  modified  to  meet  the  requirements  of  pro- 
duction. 

Five  firms  making  commercial  jewelry  and  four  making 
plated  ware  buy  designs  in  the  form  of  hubs  and  dies.  These 
can  easily  be  obtained  from  so-called  die  sinking  and  design- 
ing establishments.  These  establishments  are  headed,  usu- 
ally, by  a  man  of  extensive  practical  experience  both  in  re- 
gard to  production  requirements  and  selling  and  marketing 
conditions.  Such  persons  understand  the  market  and  the 
character  of  design  acceptable  in  that  market  as  well  as  the 
machine  processes  most  eflPective  and  economical  to  produce 
desired  effects. 

Such  concerns  develop  the  designs  either  as  drawings  or 
wax  models  from  which  the  dies  are  cut.  They  then  furnish 
a  set  of  dies  to  the  purchasing  establishment,  which  pays 
anywhere  from  $60  to  I300  a  set  and  which  is  supposed  to  be 
the  sole  owner  of  this  particular  pattern.  There  have,  however, 
been  cases  where  the  ownership  has  not  been  undisputed. 
This  is  one  of  the  reasons  that  most  of  the  establishments 
prefer  to  depend  upon  their  own  tool  makers.  Nevertheless, 
with  but  two  exceptions,  establishment  representatives  state 
that  they  consider  the  existence  of  designers  outside  the 
commercial  establishments  as  desirable  and  valuable  because 
they  contribute  varied  suggestions  for  new  patterns.  This 
feeling  is  especially  true  among  the  establishments  which  use 
only  a  limited  number  of  designs  a  year. 

Only  one  firm  reports  that  designs  are  purchased  in  Europe. 
With  but  few  exceptions  the  opinion  is  expressed  that  Euro- 
pean designs  are  not  superior  to  those  produced  in  this  coun- 
try. One  states  that  French  and  German  "fancy  patterns" 
were  superior  before  the  war,  another  that  French  designs 


MEDIUM  AND  LOW-GRADE  JEWELRY  141 

were  superior  three  or  four  years  ago  and  another  that 
German  jewelry  designs  for  the  cheapest  grade  jewelry  were 
formerly  superior  to  those  developed  in  this  country. 

Almost  without  exception  the  execu- 
How  New  Designs      tive  decides  what  pattern  is  to  be 
Are  Defined  followed  and  brings  the  problem  to 

the  designer,  if  one  is  employed,  or 
to  the  practical  jeweler  who  makes  models  either  in  wax  or  in 
the  actual  material.  In  the  establishments  which  employ 
designers  the  pattern  is  sometimes  determined  in  a  conference 
between  the  designer  and  the  executive. 

The  success  of  new  designs  is  said  to  depend  partly  upon 
the  executive  and  partly  upon  the  ability  of  the  workers  to 
carry  out  his  ideas. 

Sources  from  which  executives  obtain  ideas  for  new  designs 
are  noted  as  follows:  previous  successful  designs  which  have 
been  produced  by  the  establishment,  higher-grade  jewelry, 
and  books  on  ornament.  A  few  also  report  that  antique  ex- 
amples of  jewelry,  foreign  design,  fashions  in  dress,  and  art- 
istic data  in  museums  furnish  inspiration. 

In  almost  every  case  it  was  stated  that  the  executives  who 
evolve  the  new  styles  were  developed  through  practical 
experience  in  the  industry.  In  one  firm  the  two  executives  had 
experience  in  the  sales  division. 

The  method  by  which  new  stock  designs  are  developed  is 
said  to  be  as  follows:  In  the  manufacture  of  low-grade  gold- 
plated  watch  chains,  the  head  of  the  firm  together  with  his 
mechanical  draftsman  or  engineer  first  decide  on  the  nature 
of  the  design.  They  then  go  over  a  number  of  patterns  which 
seem  suitable  for  their  purpose.  From  those  patterns  selected 
they  will  concoct  or  crystalize  a  new  pattern,  taking  parts 
or  ideas  from  one  product  and  certain  parts  from  another. 
Having  completed  this  selective  process  of  designing,  they 
will  then  set  about  accomplishing  their  main  task,  that  is,  to 
construct  or  develop  machinery  capable  of  producing  the 
new  pattern.  The  average  time  necessary  to  develop  such 
machinery  is  anywhere  from  three  to  six  months  and  a  great 


142  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

deal  of  work  and  labor  are  expended  to  reduce  the  number 
of  operations  to  a  minimum.  During  this  period  of  machine 
development  the  design  very  often  undergoes  changes.  If, 
for  instance,  a  link  can  be  produced  more  quickly  or  cheaply 
by  slightly  altering  the  bend,  there  is  no  hesitation  in  making 
the  design  conform  to  the  machine  requirements. 

To  bring  out  novelties  in  design  requires,  first  of  all,  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  the  market.  The  existing  model  that 
has  proven  the  best  seller  is  first  selected.  From  this,  as 
a  starting  point,  the  effort  is  made  to  develop  something 
different  while  still  retaining  the  character  that  made  this 
particular  pattern  successful.  For  this  reason,  sudden  changes 
in  the  patterns  of  low-grade  jewelry  seldom  occur,  but  only 
gradual  modifications  of  effect. 

The  greater  part  of  designing  in 
Work  of  Designers     inexpensive  jewelry  is  done  by  the 

so-called  practical  jeweler  or  bench 
worker.  Such  persons  are  practical  jewelers  first  of  all  and  if 
able  to  furnish  the  slight  talent  for  design  which  is  required 
they  can  usually  fill  the  position  of  pattern  maker  or  designer. 

Such  a  jeweler  sits  at  his  bench  surrounded  by  the  stock 
findings  (artificial  stones,  celluloid  cameos  and  metal  trim- 
mings) .  He  assembles  these  in  different  ways,  seeking  to  make 
new  arrangements,  adds  a  stone  here  or  enriches  the  piece 
with  a  new  ornamental  unit  there.  If  the  supply  of  patterns 
that  can  be  developed  with  these  stock  findings  is  exhausted 
it  becomes  necessary  to  work  out  new  pieces  requiring  new 
cuttings. 

In  case  a  new  design  is  decided  upon  the  pattern  maker 
proceeds  to  make  a  wax  model.  The  die  cutter  then  considers 
the  practicability  of  the  pattern  submitted.  He  may  suggest 
certain  simplifications  of  the  patterns  which  do  not  change 
the  character  of  the  design  materially  but  make  the  die  more 
practical.  He  then  proceeds  to  cut  out  of  soft  steel  the  neces- 
sary hub  and  die. 

The  average  time  required  for  this  work  is  two  weeks, 
varying  according  to  the  elaborateness  of  the  design.  During 


MEDIUM  AND  LOW-GRADE  JEWELRY  143 

the  cutting  process,  the  tool  cutter  may  make  further  sug- 
gestions in  regard  to  modifications  of  the  design  in  order  to 
make  it  still  more  practical.  From  the  original  set  of  dies  a 
duplicate  set  is  stamped  out  by  the  machine.  The  original  set 
is  filed  for  reference  or  for  further  duplication. 

As  stated  above,  only  three  of  the 
Training  of  twenty-four    firms    visited    employ 

Designers  designers.  These  establishments  make 

a  comparatively  high-grade  commer- 
cial product.  All  of  the  other  firms  employ  either  practical 
jewelers  or  tool  cutters  who  assist  in  the  development  of  new 
designs. 

A  total  of  eleven  designers  are  employed  in  the  three  firms 
having  designing  staffs  of  their  own.  Three  of  these  were 
trained  in  art  schools  in  the  United  States,  two  in  commercial 
practice  in  this  country,  and  six  were  trained  in  the  industry 
in  Switzerland. 

The  majority  of  the  practical  jewelers  employed  in  these 
establishments  were  trained  in  the  industry  either  in  the 
United  States  or  in  Europe. 

Few  firms  have  had  experience  with  graduates  from  art 
schools.  One  establishment  representative  states  that  he 
found  the  process  of  training  an  art-school  graduate  required 
so  much  time  that  his  firm  was  obliged  to  discontinue  this 
practice  and  to  hire  experienced  designers.  Another  states 
that  they  have  found  such  students  too  ambitious  and  artistic 
to  be  contented  with  designing  for  this  grade  of  market. 

All  the  establishment  representatives  state  that  the  average 
designer  does  not  pick  up  readily  in  practice  the  necessary 
technical  knowledge;  one  stating  that  only  several  years  of 
apprenticeship  will  give  the  designer  the  needed  understand- 
ing of  mechanical  processes;  another  that  it  requires  about 
three  years,  and  another  that  it  can  be  acquired  in  one  and 
a  half  to  two  years. 

It  was  stated  by  all  of  the  representatives  who  answered 
this  question  that  the  work  of  the  designer  in  this  branch  of 
the  jewelry  industry,  being  so  largely  of  a  technical  character. 


144  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

does  not  deteriorate,  but  that  his  output  improves  as  his 
mechanical  skill  increases.  Methods  employed  by  establish- 
ments to  stimulate  designers  to  further  development  are 
reported  as  follows:  allowing  a  certain  amount  of  freedom  in 
order  to  visit  museums,  galleries,  and  retail  stores;  paying 
adequate  salaries;  permitting  designers  to  travel  to  acquaint 
themselves  with  the  products  of  other  establishments. 

Very  few  answers  were  received  re- 

Remuneration  of       garding  the  salaries  paid  designers. 

Designers  Two  firms  report  that  the  maximum 

salary  paid  their  practical  jewelers 

is  I90  a  week.  Another  firm  reports  that  $5,000  a  year  is 

paid  its  designer  and  another  that  the  head  designer  receives 

1 1 0,000  a  year. 

Only  one  firm  reports  that  there  is  a 
Demand  demand    for    high-grade    designers. 

FOR  Designers  With  this  exception  the  feeling  is 
expressed  by  establishment  repre- 
sentatives that  designers  of  high  artistic  merit  would  be  out 
of  place  in  this  branch  of  the  industry.  Two  firms  state, 
however,  that  there  is  a  demand  for  highly  skilled  labor, 
that  is,  steel  cutters  and  engravers. 

All  of  the  establishment  represent- 

Training  atives  feel  that  the  art  schools  of 

Recommended  by       today    cannot    satisfactorily    train 

Establishment         designers    for    this    branch   of   the 

Representatives       industry.  Several  state  that  they  can 

lay  a  foundation  upon  which  to  base 

practical  knowledge,  but  that  this  training  is  of  little  value 

without  subsequent  practical  experience.  One  feels  that  the 

art  school  could  give  valuable  training  if  it  were  supplied  with 

practical  equipment  for  production,  another  that  a  trade 

school  would  be  of  greater  value  to  the  industry  than  an 

applied-art  school. 

Almost  without  exception  representatives  feel  that  for 
this  branch  of  the  industry  young  men  would  derive  more 
benefit  if  they  would  spend  a  few  years  in  an  establishment 


MEDIUM  AND  LOW-GRADE  JEWELRY         145 

learning  the  practical  requirements  of  production  and  later 
supplement  this  by  study  in  an  art  school  rather  than  to 
reverse  this  process.  Practically  all  express  the  opinion  that 
the  most  effective  way  to  acquire  the  needed  art  training  is 
in  evening  classes. 

The  majority  of  the  establishment  representatives  state 
that  the  ability  of  the  designer  who  has  been  trained  in  the 
industry  to  understand  machine  production  is  his  most 
important  asset. 

All  of  the  representatives  feel  that  this  special  technical 
knowledge  leading  to  an  understanding  of  the  processes  of 
machine  production  and  instruction  in  pattern  making,  tool 
cutting,  the  making  of  hubs  and  dies,  silver  stamping  and 
modeling  should  be  an  important  element  in  the  school  train- 
ing if  such  training  is  to  play  a  part  in  developing  designers. 
Eight  state  that  a  knowledge  of  historic  motives  would  be 
desirable  and  six  that  facility  in  drawing  and  rendering  might 
be  useful. 

A  majority  of  the  establishment  representatives  believe 
that  it  would  be  advisable  to  allow  students  in  such  schools 
to  make  designs  for  the  market.  A  few  qualify  this  statement 
by  saying  that  this  should  not  be  done  too  early  in  the  course. 

All  of  the  representatives  feel  that  the  employer  must  be 
responsible  for  the  further  development  of  the  young  person 
admitted  to  his  establishment  if  effective  workers  are  to  be 
trained. 

Three  designers  made  recommenda- 
Training  tions  regarding  the  training  of  de- 

Recommended  by       signers  in  this  field.  All  recommend 
Designers  that  the  student  receive  training  in 

an  art  school  under  competent  in- 
structors, but  one  believes  that  this  should  not  take  place 
until  he  has  had  several  years  of  practical  shop  experience. 
Three  years  is  mentioned  by  two  designers  as  the  desirable 
length  of  the  school  course.  It  is  felt  that  the  following  work 
should  be  given  special  attention:  general  jewelry  designing, 
outlining,  mixing  of  colors  and  shading;  high-grade  bench 


146  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

work,  and  special  study  of  designing  to  meet  the  requirements 
of  machine  production.  Two  believe  that  a  course  in  gen- 
eral art  should  precede  specialized  work  in  design,  while  the 
third  states  that  training  in  general  art  would  be  a  waste 
of  time.  All  believe  that  it  would  be  advisable  for  students 
to  make  designs  for  the  market  during  their  training.  It  is 
also  thought  desirable  to  have  students  spend  a  certain  a- 
mount  of  time  at  work  with  commercial  establishments  as 
part  of  their  school  training. 

Only  two  representatives  replied  to 

Museum  the  questions  regarding  the  value  of 

Collections  museum  collections.  Bothof  these  feel 

that  museum  collections  of  jewelry 
arranged  historically  would  be  an  important  means  of  develop- 
ing designers.  Such  collections  should  contain  original  speci- 
mens as  far  as  possible,  but  reproductions  and  photographs 
would  be  of  much  benefit.  One  representative  feels  that  no 
existing  museum  fulfills  the  need  in  this  field,  the  other 
states  that  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art  in  New  York 
City  is  of  great  service  in  this  connection.  Both  believe  that 
museums  should  be  open  in  the  evening. 

The  small  amount  of  original  work 
Summary  in  design,  and  the  large  dependence 

on  machine  requirements  represent- 
ed in  the  manufacture  of  low-grade  jewelry  would  seem  to 
indicate  that  provisions  for  day-school  training  of  designers 
are  hardly  practicable.  The  first  need  in  this  field  would  seem 
to  be  better  provision  for  training  young  men  for  the  produc- 
tion side  of  the  industry — for  such  positions  as  die  and  hub 
cutters  and  tool  makers.  For  this  purpose  the  organization  of 
an  effective  apprenticeship  system  in  the  industry  is  sorely 
needed.  Such  a  system  to  be  made  effective  can  apparently 
be  developed  only  through  cooperative  agreements  between 
all  of  the  producing  firms  in  any  one  locality  that  would  pre- 
vent the  apprentice  being  tempted  away  from  his  employer 
by  another  before  the  term  of  apprenticeship  expires.  For 
the  further  development  of  such  craftsmen  in  the  matter  of 


MEDIUM  AND  LOW-GRADE  JEWELRY  147 

design,  evening  or  part-time  classes,  taught  by  thoroughly 
competent  instructors,  understanding  the  requirements  of 
this  grade  of  jewelry,  would  seem  to  be  the  most  practical 
provision.  Such  classes  should  not  only  deal  with  jewelry 
drawing  and  design  but  should  afford  instruction  in  the  prin- 
ciples of  design  and  in  the  study  of  historic  ornament. 


SILVERWARE 

The  making  of  silverware  is  one  of  the  oldest  art  industries 
in  this  country.  Silver  made  by  Paul  Revere  and  other  eight- 
eenth century  craftsmen  is  eagerly  sought  after  today  by 
museums  and  private  collectors. 

Silverware,  while  widely  used,  is  because  of  its  cost  largely 
a  luxury  and  as  such  its  production  is  among  the  first  to  feel 
"hard  times"  and  the  last  to  recover  from  its  effects. 

The  silver  industry  comprises  two  types  of  ware — sterling 
and  plated.  The  larger  number  of  designers  and  skilled 
craftsmen  are  naturally  required  in  the  production  of 
sterling.  Plated  ware  has  a  basis  either  of  soft  metal  or  hard 
metal. 

The  shapes  manufactured  also  influence  the  scope  of  the 
design  department;  thus  firms  which  confine  their  output 
to  "flat-ware" — spoons,  knives  and  forks — require  fewer 
designers  than  those  making  "hollow  ware"  and  "small 
wares"  or  "novelties." 

The  products  made  by  the  silverware  industry  as  a  whole 
include:  flatware  (spoons,  forks  and  similar  articles  for  the 
table) ;  hollow  ware  (tea  and  coffee  sets  and  articles  of  similar 
form  for  table  service);  decorative  pieces;  prize  and  loving 
cups;  ecclesiastical  ware;  candelabra  and  candlesticks;  toilet 
articles;  boxes  for  jewels,  cigars  and  cigarettes;  mesh  bags 
and  vanity  cases;  picture  frames;  silver  deposited  on  glass 
and  china;  and  numerous  small  objects  generally  known  as 
"novelties." 

According  to  government  statistics  it  appears  that  the 
number  of  establishments  making  sterling  and  plated  silver- 
ware has  decreased  from  234  in  1859  to  180  in  1914.  The 
number  of  people  employed  in  the  industry,  however,  had 
become  five  times  as  great,  15,787  persons  being  employed  in 
1 914  as  contrasted  with  3,843  in  1859.  The  capital  invested 
had  increased  seventeen  times,  growing  from  $3,250,000  to 
$50,157,296;  and  the  value  of  the  product  had  increased 


ISO  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

seven  times,  amounting  in  191 4  to  $38,270,552  of  which 
116,148,587  represented  theprincipalmaterial  and  $21,691,007 
the  value  added  by  manufacture.  The  highest  number  of 
persons  employed  and  the  greatest  value  of  the  product  was 
represented  by  the  year  1904. 

The  demand  for  new  styles  in  sterling 
Nature  of  silver  is  to  a  large  extent  due  to  the 

THE  Demand  for        American    desire    for   novelty    and 
Designs  change.  Articlesof  silver  do  not  quick- 

ly wear  out  and  the  demand  for  new 
designs  is  to  a  degree  stimulated  artificially  by  the  manufac- 
turer to  increase  business.  If  it  were  not  for  this  demand  for 
novelty  fewer  designers  would  be  required. 

Many  thoughtful  persons  in  the  industry  express  the  be- 
lief that  such  a  practice  is  wrong  economically  and  aesthet- 
ically, inasmuch  as  silver  should  be  so  beautiful  in  design 
and  so  well  made  that  a  service  would  be  handed  down  from 
generation  to  generation  and  that  more  or  less  whimsical 
changes  for  the  sake  of  novelty  should  not  be  necessary. 

Each  firm,  however,  naturally  tries  to  obtain  as  many 
orders  as  possible.  Salesmen  are  constantly  on  the  lookout 
for  "novelties"  brought  out  by  competing  establishments  and 
for  projects  to  meet  needs  real  or  imaginary.  These  they 
speedily  report  to  the  manager  and  officers  of  their  company 
as  a  basis  for  new  designs.  There  follows  an  effort  to  develop 
an  object  somewhat  better  than  that  brought  out  by  the 
competitor  and  to  produce  it  as  economically  as  possible  by 
the  use  of  existing  tools  and  molds. 

Among  the  higher-grade  establishments  new  designs  as  a 
rule  are  developed  in  an  effort  to  "freshen  up"  the  stock  and 
to  put  forth  something  more  attractive  or  eye-catching  than 
the  previous  product  and  thus  to  increase  the  sales. 

Special  orders  naturally  offer  the  largest  opportunities  for 
original  designs  and  individuality  of  treatment. 

In  years  gone  by  it  was  accepted  policy  for  a  firm  to  bring 
out  a  new  design  for  flat  tableware  only  about  once  in  seven 
years.  A  few  years  ago  this  policy  underwent  a  radical  change 


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SILVERWARE  151 

and  it  became  the  custom  to  have  two  or  three  new  designs 
on  the  market  each  spring  and  autumn.  Just  at  present  the 
average  practice  seems  to  be  the  production  of  one  new  design 
a  year. 

Designers  are  employed  by  all  of  the 
Where  Designs        twenty-one  firms  surveyed.  All  firms 
Are  Obtained         reported  that  no  designs  are  secured 
from  outside  sources,  but  that  the 
designers  within  the  establishments  are  depended  upon  for 
the  development  of  new  designs.  In  fact,  the  demand  for  the 
work  of  free-lance  designers  is  so  small  that  only  two  were 
found.   Both  had  worked  in  establishments,  but  preferred, 
for  personal  reasons,  to  carry  on  their  designing  alone.    One 
of  these  designed  only  for  silverware  and  found  that  his  in- 
come was  about  the  same  as  when  on  a  salary.  One  establish- 
ment representative  states  the  belief  that  the  existence  of 
free-lance  designers  is  valuable  for  the  small  firms  which  do 
not  maintain  design  departments. 

All  of  the  concerns  report  that  no  designs  are  purchased  in 
Europe,  but  a  few  state  that  examples  of  silverware  are 
secured  from  abroad  and  that  these  furnish  the  chief  source 
of  inspiration.  Many,  however,  buy  books  and  plates  from 
Europe  showing  designs  in  silver. 

Silver  to  an  extent  sells  itself  because 
How  New  Designs      of  the  intrinsic  quality  of  the  mate- 
Are  Defined  rial,  but  the  success  of  a  manufactur- 

ing firm  depends  to  a  considerable 
extent  upon  the  quality  of  design  displayed  in  its  products. 
New  patterns,  to  be  successful,  must  reflect  the  demand  of 
the  buying  public.  The  style  or  general  character  of  new  de- 
signs is  often  evolved,  in  large  establishments,  through  a 
conference  between  the  manager,  or  member  of  the  firm,  the 
head  designer,  and  the  sales  manager.  In  this  way  the  problem 
is  viewed  from  the  standpoint  of  the  public  demand,  or  what 
is  thought  to  be  that  demand,  from  that  of  the  expert  in 
production  and  costs,  and  from  that  of  the  artistic  possibilities 
presented.  In  the  smaller  factories  and  those  which  require 


152  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

few  designs,  the  manager  or  head  salesman  defines  the  new 
patterns. 

The  person  who  defines  the  character  of  new  designs  seldom 
has  had  any  definite  art  training  but  has  usually  risen  through 
the  shop  to  be  a  foreman  and  then  manager,  or  has  developed 
from  a  salesman.  His  taste,  on  the  other  hand,  has  often 
been  cultivated  through  association  with  persons  connected 
with  the  design  of  silverware  and  similar  products,  and  by 
the  study  of  the  problems  of  line,  proportion,  and  decora- 
tion as  applied  to  his  own  products.  Only  two  of  these 
persons  interviewed  had  studied  in  an  art  school.  One  other 
had  been  a  practicing  architect  before  becoming  a  silver- 
ware designer.  Another  was  a  graduate  of  the  Massachusetts 
Institute  of  Technology. 

Whoever  evolves  the  new  forms,  as  far  as  stock  patterns 
are  concerned,  to  a  large  extent  merely  devises  new  names 
for  old  forms,  adapts  old  shapes  to  new  purposes,  applies 
new  decorations  to  old  forms  and  old  decorations  to  new 
forms.  In  other  words,  the  molds  and  dies  that  are  on  hand 
are  used  with  as  little  new  work  as  possible,  to  produce  sup- 
posedly attractive  and  seemingly  new  effects.  The  develop- 
ment of  decorative  details,  however,  largely  rests  with  the 
designer  and  much  variety  and  originality  may  be  displayed 
by  him  even  in  the  small  space  represented  by  the  handle  of 
a  spoon. 

Fashions  for  table  and  toilet  ware  are  influenced  by  styles 
in  interior  decoration.  Changes  in  furniture,  upholstery  goods 
and  table  china  are  carefully  followed  and  it  becomes  the 
designer's  problem  to  adapt  the  firm's  products  to  the  coming 
demand.  As  it  is  necessary  to  plan  production  at  least  a  full 
year  ahead  of  the  market,  it  is  requisite  to  sense  the  coming 
style  changes  well  beforehand. 

In  the  average  establishment  the  de- 
WoRK  OF  Designers     signer  must  not  only  be  able  to  draw 

well  and  accurately,  but  he  should  be 
familiar  with  decorative  motives  and  should  understand  the 
nature  of  the  shop  processes.  In  some  cases  he  must  also  be 


SILVERWARE  153 

able  to  model  in  wax,  cast  in  plaster  and  prepare  the  working 
drawings  for  use  in  the  shop.  In  two  or  three  of  the  largest 
establishments  one  or  two  men  are  relied  on  for  the  original 
work  while  the  rest  of  the  designers  are  employed  on  the  more 
routine  work. 

The  head  designer  needs  a  generous  equipment.  His  work 
should  evince  a  fine  feeling  for  proportion  and  decorative 
balance  and  an  appreciation  of  the  play  of  light  and  shade 
in  modeled  work.  He  should  have  breadth  of  experience  and 
general  artistic  culture.  He  should  be  sensitive  to  influences 
and  suggestions  from  many  sources  and  be  able  to  select 
those  that  are  vital  and  timely  and  to  put  these  into  practical 
and  beautiful  form.  He  should  be  able  to  meet  the  firm's 
salesmen  in  order  that  they  in  turn  can  sell  the  goods.  He 
should  be  alert  to  the  tendencies  of  the  times  and  ready  to 
devote  time  to  the  study  of  books  and  magazines  that  treat 
of  the  home  and  its  equipment. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  head  designer  must  understand  the 
technical  requirements  of  production  and  keep  in  touch  with 
the  work  as  it  progresses  through  the  shop,  often  modifying 
a  design  as  he  sees  an  opportunity  to  improve  the  general 
effect  or  to  reduce  the  cost.  He  should  be  able  to  develop 
team  work  and  to  secure  the  cooperation  of  his  assistant 
designers,  modelers,  die  cutters,  silversmiths,  chasers,  and 
finishers. 

When  a  new  design  is  required  the  largest  piece  of  a  set  is 
usually  selected  for  experimental  work.  A  rough  pencil  sketch 
of  a  coffeepot  or  teapot  is  often  the  beginning  of  an  elaborate 
design.  From  such  vague  suggestions  the  designer  must  make 
a  careful  drawing  of  the  form,  constantly  refining  the  propor- 
tions of  the  body,  handle,  and  spout.  The  decoration  is  only 
slightly  indicated  to  show  its  general  character.  If  the  design 
is  to  be  shown  to  a  customer  it  is  then  worked  up  in  color; 
this  is  especially  the  method  of  the  free-lance  who  depends 
upon  first  impressions  for  the  sale  of  his  design.  Working 
drawings  of  the  different  parts  are  then  made  and  blue  prints 
are  taken  from  them  for  the  use  of  foremen  and  craftsmen 


154  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

in  the  various  departments.  Then  comes  the  making  of  wax 
models,  plaster  casts  and  special  tools,  and  finally  a  sample 
piece,  upon  which  the  ornament  is  carefully  drawn,  is  made 
in  silver.  This  model  piece  is  then  chased  or  engraved  by  hand 
and  studied.  There  are  frequent  conferences  as  the  work  pro- 
ceeds. In  fact,  there  are  cases  where  the  model  is  submitted 
not  only  to  officers  and  salesmen,  but  to  the  more  important 
customers  as  well  before  it  is  finally  accepted. 

It  is  no  unusual  thing  to  find  that  a  designer  has  spent  a 
whole  year  in  developing  a  spoon  that  meets  the  approval  of 
all  concerned;  but  it  should  be  remembered  that  when  the 
design  is  approved  it  is  to  be  used,  with  slight  modifications, 
on  as  many  as  forty  or  fifty  sizes  of  spoons,  knives  and  forks 
for  most  of  which  a  separate  die  and  hub  must  be  cut.  The 
cost  of  a  set  of  dies  for  elaborate  designs  may  run  as  high  as 
$30,000  to  140,000. 

For  special  orders  more  original  designs  are  required.  These 
are  evolved  after  due  study  of  the  problem,  often  involving 
consultation  of  reference  books  and  other  source  material. 
Furniture  and  especially  wood-carving  frequently  offer  more 
suggestions  for  new  motives  than  actual  examples  in  silver. 
One  designer  stated  that  his  garden  was  his  greatest  inspi- 
ration. It  is  noted  that  at  times  a  designer  gives  too  full  play 
to  his  imagination  and  is  likely  to  produce  a  piece  which  may 
remain  unsold  for  years. 

In  smaller  shops  it  is  often  necessary  for  the  designer  to  do 
many  kinds  of  work,  including  modeling,  casting,  die  cutting, 
chasing  and  engraving.  While  cost,  mechanical  requirements 
and  popular  taste  must  all  be  considered,  it  still  is  true  that 
the  designer's  talent  will  play  an  important  part  in  the  final 
product.  "The  extent  to  which  a  designer  may  express  his 
desire  for  beauty  depends  wholly  and  entirely  upon  the 
character  of  designing  that  he  is  producing.  A  designer  is 
not  limited  if  he  is  fortunate  enough  to  be  employed  by  a 
concern  that  covers  the  whole  field  of  silverware;  in  the  rich 
and  expensive  products  he  is  free  to  prove  his  artistic  ability 
and  at  the  same  time  display  his  appreciation  of  form  and 


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SILVERWARE  155 

his  understanding  of  practical  construction.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  commercial  requirements  of  construction  and  the 
various  mechanical  methods  employed,  as  well  as  the  ultimate 
cost,  play  a  most  important  part  in  designing  what  is  known 
as  a  'commercial  line.'  * 

Engravers  are  usually  men  with  a  taste  for  drawing  who 
have  developed  special  skill  in  their  particular  technique. 
Others  of  this  type  become  die  sinkers,  chasers,  mold  makers 
or  lay  the  grounds  for  etching.  All  these  require  skill  in  draw- 
ing and  a  feeling  for  beauty  of  line.  Many  of  these  workmen 
were  found  to  have  received  their  training  in  Europe  and  to 
be  skilled  craftsmen  capable  of  dealing  with  several  phases  of 
silver  production.  Among  these  are  undoubtedly  many  per- 
sons of  taste  and  artistic  quality.  Their  work  in  the  American 
factory,  however,  has  been  reduced  to  some  one  specialized 
process  and  in  this  narrow  field  they  are  employed  year  in, 
year  out,  with  but  little  opportunity  to  express  themselves 
artistically. 

A  total  of  1 13  designers  are  employed 
Training  by  these  twenty-one  firms.  Personal 

OF  Designers  records  were  obtained  from  fifty-five 

of  these  and  more  or  less  specific  in- 
formation as  to  training  was  given  by  the  establishment  repre- 
sentatives in  regard  to  nine  other  designers.  Aside  from  the 
statement  that  they  were  trained  mainly  in  the  industry,  no 
information  was  received  in  regard  to  the  remaining  designers. 

Of  the  fifty-five  designers  from  whom  records  were  secured, 
and  the  nine  about  whom  information  was  received — ^making 
a  total  of  sixty-four — forty-nine  were  trained  wholly  in  the 
United  States.  Of  these  thirteen  were  trained  in  day  art  schools, 
twenty-seven  in  commercial  practice  supplemented  by  attend- 
ance in  evening  art  schools,  four  in  commercial  practice  supple- 
mented by  study  of  drawing  or  modeling  under  private  teach- 
ers, and  five  were  trained  entirely  in  commercial  practice. 

Eleven  designers  were  trained  in  Europe.  Of  these  seven 
attended  day  art  schools  —  three  in  England,  one  in  Italy, 

*From  Record  of  Designer. 


156  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

one  in  Norway,  one  in  Sweden  and  Germany,  and  one  in  Ger- 
many. Three  were  trained  in  commercial  practice  in  England 
supplemented  by  work  in  evening  art  schools.  Another  was 
trained  in  Munich,  having  had  "unusual  experience  both  as 
craftsman  and  designer." 

Four  were  trained  both  in  the  United  States  and  in  Europe. 
One,  the  head  designer  of  one  of  the  largest  firms  surveyed, 
studied  in  art  schools  and  studios  in  the  United  States  and  in 
the  following  art  schools  in  Europe:  Die  Handwerker  Schule 
in  Berlin;  L'Academie  Julien  and  Ecole  des  Beaux-Arts  in 
Paris.  He  has  also  had  practical  experience  in  silver  engrav- 
ing, chasing  and  die  cutting.  Another,  the  art  director  of  one 
of  our  most  important  firms,  was  trained  as  an  architect  and 
had  many  years  of  experience  in  this  work  together  with 
study  abroad.  Two  others  studied  in  art  schools  in  Germany 
and  in  the  United  States. 

In  a  few  instances  the  designers  hold  other  positions  as  well 
as  that  of  designer.  In  one  firm  the  designer  is  also  the  super- 
intendent of  the  factory,  in  another  he  is  treasurer,  and  in 
another  he  is  the  head  of  the  firm. 

The  work  of  the  silverware  designer  is  reported  by  a  num- 
ber of  representatives  to  improve  with  practice  rather  than  to 
deteriorate  as  is  stated  to  be  the  case  in  some  other  lines. 
This  is  stated  to  be  especially  true  in  a  small  factory  where 
there  is  variety  and  where,  as  one  representative  points  out, 
it  is  much  easier  to  keep  "fresh"  than  in  a  large  establish- 
ment, where  there  is  much  specialization.  It  is  not  entirely 
clear  however,  whether  the  improvement  reported  consists 
in  artistic  growth  or  merely  in  increased  familiarity  with 
technical  requirements  and  with  the  stock  fixtures  of  the 
establishment. 

In  order  to  prevent  deterioration  in  the  work  of  designers 
the  following  methods  are  reported  by  various  establishments: 
maintaining  libraries  and  collections  of  silver;  holding  staff 
meetings  at  which  artistic  problems  are  discussed;  encourag- 
ing designers  to  visit  large  retailing  centers  to  observe  the 
demand  and  sense  style  tendencies;  encouraging  beginners 


SILVERWARE  157 

in  the  shop  to  attend  night  classes.  It  is  to  be  noted,  however, 
that  only  a  few  cases  were  found  where  designing  staffs  were 
regarded  as  performing  art  work  requiring  in  any  degree 
different  treatment  from  the  shop  operatives.  In  most  cases 
they  were  treated  in  no  way  differently  from  the  other  factory 
hands. 

Few  firms  have  had  experience  with  beginners  from  art 
schools.  Those  that  have  state  that  it  is  usually  necessary  to 
counteract  many  of  the  art-school  influences.  Most  firms 
prefer  to  take  men  from  the  shops  who  show  an  interest  in 
drawing  or  in  one  of  the  crafts  and  encourage  them  to  go  to 
night  school.  One  representative  states  that  the  right  kind  of 
young  person  will  endeavor  to  educate  himself,  and  firms 
that  recognize  their  responsibilities  will  train  his  ability  to 
fit  their  requirements.  In  the  shops  men  progress  from  the 
preparatory  department  to  assistant  in  some  special  branch 
and  rise  through  various  grades.  The  most  capable  may  be- 
come foremen. 

The  majority  of  both  designers  and  craftsmen  have  learned 
their  trade  in  the  shops  without  systematic  instruction  and 
then  drifted  into  their  present  work,  shifting  from  one  con- 
cern to  another  as  opportunity  presented  itself  for  improve- 
ment of  their  position.  Many  have  studied  drawing  at  night 
in  such  schools  as  the  Rhode  Island  School  of  Design  in 
Providence,  Pratt  Institute  in  Brooklyn,  Cooper  Union  and 
the  Art  Students'  League  in  New  York,  the  Pennsylvania 
School  of  Industrial  Art  in  Philadelphia,  Fawcett  School  of 
Industrial  Art  and  the  Technical  High  School  in  Newark, 
Maryland  School  of  Design  in  Baltimore,  and  evening  high- 
schools  in  Taunton  and  Bridgeport. 

The  majority  of  the  head  designers  interviewed  have  been 
in  their  present  positions  more  than  ten  years  and  some  had 
started  as  apprentices  at  $2  a  week  with  the  same  firm  with 
which  they  are  still  connected.  A  number  of  these  men  are  in 
the  neighborhood  of  fifty  years  of  age.  Quite  a  number  of 
craftsmen  and  a  few  designers  are  the  sons  and  grandsons  of 
silver  workers. 


158  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

Some  firms  exhibit  little  feeling  of  responsibility  in  the 
matter  of  training  either  their  designers  or  craftsmen.  Certain 
establishments,  on  the  other  hand,  maintained  definite  ap- 
prenticeship systems  for  craftsmen  before  the  war  and  one 
firm  actually  started  a  school  for  its  men  but  discontinued  it 
as  it  did  not  meet  with  the  approval  of  the  local  union.  At 
the  present  time  nearly  every  shop  and  design  room  is  ready 
to  take  apprentices,  but  few  boys  or  young  men  are  willing 
to  enter  the  silver  industry,  either  because  they  do  not  see 
any  great  opportunities  offered  by  the  trade  or  they  are  at- 
tracted to  unskilled  occupations  through  the  present  high 
wages.  Only  one  case  was  found  where  a  boy  had  recently 
signed  shop  apprenticeship  papers. 

The  old  apprenticeship  system  held  more  or  less  before  the 
war.  Boys  began  at  about  I3  a  week  and  worked  from  three 
to  five  years  with  a  slight  increase  every  six  months  and  at 
the  end  of  their  term  received  a  bonus  at  the  rate  of  $1  a  week 
for  the  entire  period,  thus  giving  them  from  $150  to  $250 
when  they  completed  their  "time."  Today  boys  begin  at 
about  I15  a  week  and  are  under  no  agreement  to  remain  any 
length  of  time.  In  the  mechanical  departments  the  unions 
permit  one  apprentice  to  ten  journeymen  of  each  kind.  It  is 
said  that  out  of  thirty  young  men  who  think  that  they  are 
interested  in  the  silver  industry  either  as  designers  or  crafts- 
men about  ten  will  "stick,"  five  will  "make  good"  and  one 
will  rise  to  comparative  prominence. 

No  general  scheme  of  salary  progres- 

Remuneration  of      sion  for  designers  was  found.  The 

Designers  average  salary  of  a  head  designer  as 

reported  is  about  $5,000  a  year;  in 

exceptional  cases  it  was  stated  that  the  salary  paid  might 

be  double  this  amount. 

The  salaries  of  assistant  designers  range  from  $2,000  to 
$4,000  a  year,  being  usually  quoted  at  $40  to  $50  a  week. 

In  the  shops  the  foremen  of  the  silversmiths,  die  cutters, 
or  chasers  receive  from  $75  to  $100  a  week.  Silversmiths, 
chasers  and  spinners  are  paid  from  sixty  to  eighty-five  cents 


Hand  wrought  silver  teapot  by  an  American  artist  craftsman 


Hand  wrought  silver  covered  dish  by  a  foreign-born  artist  craftsman  working 
for  an  American  silversmithing  establishment 


SILVERWARE  •      159 

an  hour,  thus  earning  from  $30  to  I50  a  week;  engravers  from 
seventy  to  eighty-five  cents  an  hour,  and  the  highest  paid 
craftsman,  the  die  cutters,  eighty  cents  to  |i.io  an  hour, 
thus  earning  from  I50  to  $100  a  week.  Boys  start  in  the  shop 
at  fifteen  to  eighteen  years  of  age  and  are  paid  from  twenty 
to  thirty  cents  an  hour,  which  amounts  to  I2.50  to  $3  a  day, 
an  amount  equal  to  what  they  received  in  a  week  before  the 
war. 

From  the  foregoing  it  will  be  seen 
Demand  that  the  silver  industry  requires  but 

FOR  Designers  comparatively  few  designers.  A  firm 
manufacturing  for  its  own  salesrooms 
has  a  more  varied  output  and  therefore  requires  proportion- 
ately more  designers  and  more  skilled  craftsmen  than  does 
an  establishment  supplying  the  wholesale  trade.  Many  more 
designers  are  also  required  where  special  order  work  is  done 
than  where  the  output  is  entirely  "stock  patterns"  and  "com- 
mercial lines."  Several  large  establishments  employ  only  one 
designer  or  even  merely  part  of  the  time  of  a  craftsman  who 
has  some  ability  in  drawing;  while  a  few  of  the  smaller  firms 
purchase  their  patterns  from  a  free-lance  designer  or  borrow 
a  designer  for  a  period  from  an  affiliated  organization. 

The  silver  industry  employed  many  more  designers  in  the 
past  than  at  present.  Methods  have  changed  of  late  years 
and  elaborate  drawings  are  no  longer  required  to  the  extent 
that  was  formerly  the  case.  The  general  feeling  among  manu- 
facturers of  both  sterling  and  plated  silverware  is  that  the 
need  is  not  for  more  designers  but  for  better  trained  designers; 
they  also  feel  that  the  younger  men  especially,  lack  adequate 
preparation. 

Of  a  dozen  recent  applicants  tor  a  position  as  designer  it 
was  found  that  those  who  had  day  art-school  training  only 
were  without  any  knowledge  of  the  methods  of  production. 
On  the  other  hand,  many  of  the  applicants  were  found  to  be 
old  men  whose  drawings  proved  that  they  were  not  in  touch 
with  the  life  of  today. 

The  most  serious  problem  reported  in  nearly  every  inter- 


i6o  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

view  is  the  lack  of  skilled  craftsmen.*  Some  firms  could  use 
fifty  per  cent  more  silversmiths,  die  cutters,  chasers,  engravers 
and  spinners  than  they  are  able  to  secure.  The  immigration 
of  skilled  workers  has  stopped  and  practically  none  are  being 
trained  in  this  country.  A  few  firms  were  uncommunicative 
and  said  that  they  were  satisfied  with  the  supply  and  quality 
of  both  designers  and  craftsmen. 

Many  establishment  representatives 
Training  report  that  art  schools  as  they  exist  at 

Recommended  by       present  in  this  country  are  not  satis- 
EsTABLisHMENT         factory  vehicles  for  training  silver 

Representatives  designers.  The  faults  mentioned  most 
frequently  are  that  in  the  majority  of 
cases  the  instructors  are  not  practical  men  who  have  been 
successful  designers  in  the  lines  that  they  teach;  that  sufficient 
attention  is  not  paid  to  developing  a  knowledge  of  production 
requirements,  and  that  students  are  not  aided  to  select  the 
branch  of  art  for  which  they  are  best  fitted.  The  point  is  em- 
phasized that  students  should  be  made  to  realize  that  design- 
ing is  a  serious  business  and  that  art  is  not  the  "easy  job" 
that  most  of  them  imagine  it  to  be. 

It  is  also  charged  that  the  art  schools  give  the  student 
an  exaggerated  view  of  his  importance  and  that  he  is  un- 
willing to  do  the  requisite  detail  work.  The  point  is  made 
that  after  three  or  four  years'  study  in  an  art  school  a 
young  designer  is  really  only  just  ready  to  begin  his  practical 
training  and  should  be  willing  to  accept  a  moderate  salary 
for  two  or  three  years,  entering  the  factory  as  assistant 
in  the  design  department,  with  the  understanding  that  part 
of  his  time  is  to  be  spent  in  the  shops  and  even  at  the 
bench.  After  that  he  will  command  a  much  higher  salary 
than  the  man  who  has  never  been  outside  the  shop,  although 
at  one  period  the  shop-trained  man  may  be  receiving  the 
greater  income. 

Some  representatives,  on  the  other  hand,  feel  that  the  best 
results  are  obtained  by  the  young  beginner  starting  in  the 

*This  was  reported  in  a  period  of  prosperity. 


SILVERWARE  i6i 

shop  and  then,  if  a  desire  is  displayed  on  his  part  to  become 
a  designer,  attending  an  art  school  for  a  period  of  two  years. 

A  few  heads  of  departments  advocate  part  time  in  shop  and 
part  time  in  school  after  two  years  in  art  school.  Thus  the 
mornings  might  be  spent  in  the  employer's  shop  and  design 
room  while  the  afternoons  are  devoted  to  the  study  of  orna- 
mental design,  including  the  architectural  styles,  period,  fur- 
niture, metal,  pottery,  and  glass. 

If  craft  work  is  taught  by  practical  men  it  is  felt  by  some 
of  the  establishment  representatives  that  it  would  be  helpful, 
while  others  question  the  value  of  including  it  in  the  course 
of  a  serious  art  school  because  of  the  inability  of  most  art 
schools  to  furnish  adequate  equipment.  It  is  not  considered 
advisable  for  students  to  make  designs  for  the  market  while 
in  school  because  they  would  hardly  be  up  to  trade  standards 
and  would  undoubtedly  be  sold  at  a  price  below  that  of  the 
trade. 

Drawing  from  life  is  considered  valuable  training  for  eye 
and  hand;  modeling  is  looked  upon  as  essential  and  principles 
of  design  and  period  decoration  are  emphasized  as  important. 

One  representative  states:  "A  system  whereby  the  em- 
ployer would  admit  young  persons  into  his  design  department 
and  assume  responsibility  for  their  further  development 
should  be  evolved.  This  is  the  crux  of  the  whole  problem  of 
industrial  art  training.  The  school  should  lay  the  proper 
foundation  and  the  design  room  of  the  factory  provide  for 
continuing  the  education  while  making  use  of  the  existing 
qualities  of  the  partially  educated  designer." 

Thirteen  designers  employed  in  ster- 
Training  ling  silverware  establishments  gave 

Recommended  by       their  views  as  to  the  training  which 
Designers  they  would  consider  most  desirable 

for  designers  in  this  industry.  Ten  of 
these  recommend  that  students  should  obtain  their  art  train- 
ing in  art  schools  and  three  recommend  that  boys  should  first 
enter  shops  and  then,  if  they  show  special  interest  or  talent 
for  drawing  they  should  be  given  opportunity  for  study.  From 


1 62  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

two  to  four  years  is  given  as  the  desirable  length  for  an  art- 
school  course.  It  is  felt  that  general  art  training  should  pre- 
cede specialized  work  in  design. 

There  is  a  division  of  opinion  as  to  the  advisability  of  in- 
cluding craft  work  in  an  art  school  course,  it  being  felt  by 
some  that  this  might  better  be  undertaken  in  the  shop  under 
practical  conditions.  A  majority  of  the  designers  believe  that 
students  should  make  designs  for  the  market  during  their 
school  training. 

The  work  in  art  schools  should  include  plenty  of  free-hand 
drawing  (including  life);  modeling;  the  study  of  color;  orna- 
mental design  including  architectural  styles,  and  period  design 
in  furniture,  metals,  and  pottery. 

One  of  the  free-lance  designers  interviewed  states  that  the 
average  young  designer  and  craftsman  would  receive  benefit 
through  studying  drawing  and  modeling  in  evening  classes 
and  that  the  most  talented  in  these  classes  should  be  given 
scholarships  to  enable  them  to  devote  all  their  time  to  study 
in  a  practical  art  school  for  a  period  of  two  or  three  years. 

A  large  majority  of  persons  inter- 
MusEUM  viewed  expressed  the  opinion  that 

Collections  museum  collections  containing  fine 

examples  of  silver  are  of  great  value 
as  a  source  of  inspiration  to  the  designer.  They  feel  it  is  im- 
portant that  such  collections  be  arranged  in  historical  fashion. 
Many  of  the  representatives  state  their  belief  that  copies 
and  reproductions  are  quite  or  almost  as  helpful  as  originals 
and  the  thought  is  often  expressed  that  fine  museum  pieces 
should  be  made  widely  available  through  reproductions  or 
through  photographs.  While  expressing  their  faith  in  the 
value  of  museum  collections,  many  emphasize  the  conviction 
that  books  containing  fine  photographic  reproductions  are  of 
almost  equal  value. 

Exhibits  of  present-day  silver  are  favored  by  several  as  a 
method  of  interesting  the  public  but  they  are  not  approved  as 
inspiration  for  designers  as  they  might  encourage  copying — 
one  of  the  worst  features  of  the  times. 


Silver  tableware  of  simple  form,  one  with  modelled  edge  ornament  and 
the  other  with  raised  edge  and  scroll  pediment 


SILVERWARE  163 

Two  representatives  expressed  the  opinion  that  museums 
should  be  open  in  the  evening;  while  three  doubt  that  the 
collections  would  be  much  used  by  designers  at  this  time  ex- 
cept by  those  living  near  the  museum. 

A  large  number  of  the  persons  inter- 
SuMMARY  viewed  in  the  silver  trade  express  the 

feeling  that  the  industry  is  at  present 
in  a  serious  situation  both  as  regards  skilled  designers  and 
craftsmen.  From  the  standpoint  of  design  as  represented  in  its 
products,  the  condition  is  not  at  all  a  satisfactory  one.  Much 
of  modern  work,  in  spite  of  notable  exceptions,  lacks  fineness 
of  proportion  and  outline  and  often  exhibits  not  only  inap- 
propriateness,  but  often  ugliness  of  detail.  Beauty  of  line  and 
surface  are  frequently  replaced  by  elaborate  and  poorly  com- 
posed modeling  which  sacrifices  the  intrinsic  qualities  of  the 
material  for  florid  and  showy  effects. 

More  than  any  other  industry,  perhaps,  the  manufacture 
of  silverware  suffers  in  regard  to  freedom  of  design  from  its 
capitalized  tools  and  fixtures.  The  large  amount  of  money  in- 
vested in  still  available  dies  and  molds  exercises  a  constant 
drag  upon  the  production  of  new  forms.  The  execution  of  a 
new  design  under  conditions  of  machine  production  is  an 
entirely  different  matter  from  its  creation  by  a  handicrafts- 
man. In  the  former  case  the  typical  problem,  after  a  new  de- 
sign has  been  developed  in  outline,  is  not  how  can  this  line 
or  that  proportion  be  still  further  refined,  but  how  can  old 
dies  and  molds  be  used  in  its  manufacture.  "The  spout  is 
very  good,  but  cannot  number  so-and-so  be  used  for  it?" 
"The  handle  looks  well  but  number  so-and-so  is  almost  the 
same  thing."  The  machine  has  been  developed  to  produce 
beautiful  things  in  silver  more  cheaply,  it  has  ended  by  the 
machine  becoming  a  Moloch  that  often  devours  the  possibili- 
ties of  beauty.  This  is  not  the  fault  of  the  machine,  but  with 
the  present  attitude  of  the  manufacturer,  it  is  a  decided  ob- 
stacle as  far  as  the  creation  of  fine  silver  is  concerned.  It  is 
because  of  this  factor  that  the  quest  for  the  superfine  in  design 
so  often  ends  satisfied  with  the  "nearly  as  good." 


i64  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

At  the  present  time  the  majority  of  designers  have  received 
no  training  in  day  art  schools.  A  large  number  of  them  have 
come  through  the  shop  and  in  some  cases  have  studied  in  eve- 
ning schools.  Shop  experience,  or  rather  an  acquaintance  with 
the  technical  processes  of  producing  silverware,  would  seem 
to  be  a  necessary  element  in  the  training  of  the  designer,  but 
it  would  also  appear  that  a  liberal  art  experience  culminating 
in  a  specialized  instruction  is  needed  if  the  problem  of  artistic 
manufacture  is  to  be  dealt  with  in  a  competent  and  adequate 
manner. 

It  would  seem  extremely  desirable  that  at  least  a  portion 
of  the  designers  in  the  silverware  trade  should  have  the  back- 
ground of  a  generous  art-school  training,  familiarity  with  the 
collections  of  art  museums,  and  companionship,  for  a  period 
of  their  lives,  with  people  primarily  interested  in  art.  The 
center  or  crux  of  this  angle  of  the  problem  would  seem  to  be 
provision  for  training  which  would  give  the  necessary  artistic 
instruction  and  inspiration,  coupled  with  some  method  by 
which  an  understanding  of  the  technical  processes  of  produc- 
tion could  be  obtained.  Whether  this  can  best  be  acquired  by 
including  in  the  school  instruction  a  certain  amount  of  craft 
work  in  metal  together  with  the  instruction  in  manufacturing 
processes,  or  whether  it  can  best  be  gained  by  cooperative 
arrangements  with  manufacturers  under  which  the  students 
would  have  opportunities  for  working  in  regular  shops  during 
a  period  of  their  training,  is  a  question. 

There  is,  on  the  other  hand,  a  body  of  opinion  that  inclines 
to  the  belief  that  the  best  method  of  meeting  the  problem  is 
to  select  young  craftsmen  and  workers  in  the  manufacturing 
establishments,  who  show  some  talent  for  drawing  and  model- 
ing, and  to  afford  these  an  opportunity  for  art-school  study 
under  a  scholarship  provision. 

The  question  of  what  kind  of  school  training  is  desirable 
is  one  that  is  tied  up  with  the  question  of  the  location  of  the 
schools.  A  large  central  school  has  been  advocated  but  it 
would  seem  extremely  questionable  whether  young  men, 
still  in  their  teens,  could  be  induced  to  come  from  different 


SILVERWARE  165 

parts  of  the  country  to  any  one  locality  in  such  numbers  as 
would  justify  such  a  school.  The  more  practical  plan  would 
seem  to  involve  provisions  for  instruction  in  centers  of  silver- 
ware production. 

It  would  seem  evident  that  any  scheme  of  practical  schools 
cannot  be  wholly  successful  unless  the  manufacturers  have 
intimate  relation  with  their  management.  This  might  mean 
development  of  manufacturers'  schools  or  it  might  mean  co- 
operation with  present  schools  through  contribution  to  their 
support  or  through  scholarships  and  by  assistance  through 
advisory  committees  composed  of  trade  representatives.  It 
would  certainly  seem  clear,  if  these  schools  are  to  function, 
that  manufacturers  must  take  a  very  definite  interest  in  the 
work,  observe  the  character  of  the  results  obtained,  come  to 
individualize  the  students  and  develop  a  willingness  to  take 
the  graduates  into  their  shops  as  openings  occur. 
^Whatever  plan  proves  most  practicable,  it  would  seem  of 
equal  importance  that  there  be  recognition  on  the  part  of  the 
employers  that  the  graduates  of  any  school  at  the  best  can 
only  be  prepared  for  a  further  apprenticeship  under  practical 
conditions  and  that  American  designers  can  be  developed 
only  when  employers  make  provisions  for  the  further  develop- 
ment of  these  young  persons  in  their  designing  rooms.  Unless 
systematic  attention  is  given  to  these  beginners  not  only  by 
providing  instruction  in  methods  of  manufacture  but  in 
affording  opportunities  for  continuous  cultural  growth,  the 
material  available  through  any  system  of  school  training  can 
only  prove  unsatisfactory  and  ineffective. 

It  is  also  very  evident  that  under  present  conditions  the 
industry  is  dependent  to  a  considerable  extent  upon  evening 
classes  for  the  development  of  its  designers.  The  emphasis 
placed  almost  uniformly  upon  the  need  of  understanding  of 
the  technical  requirements  and  the  desirability  of  gaining 
this  understanding  through  shop  experience,  together  with 
the  history  of  the  majority  of  the  designers  at  present  em- 
ployed, indicate  that  instruction  in  evening  classes  will  con- 
tinue to  constitute  a  large  feature  in  the  training  of  American 


1 66  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

silver  designers  through  the  development  of  latent  talent  in 
the  industry.  Opportunities  for  such  classes  that  will  afford 
instruction  in  drawing  can  be  found  in  most  centers  of  the 
silverware  industry.  Opportunities  for  instruction  in  modeling 
such  as  is  needed  for  silver,  in  period  decoration,  and  in  design 
are  not  so  readily  found.  To  insure  such  classes  it  is  evident 
that  cooperation  will  sometimes  be  necessary  between  manu- 
facturers and  school  authorities  either  in  the  matter  of  support 
or  of  supervision. 

Of  equal  importance  in  the  minds  of  the  representatives 
interviewed  is  the  training  of  craftsmen  for  the  silver  indus- 
try. One  of  the  real  problems  is  to  induce  boys  and  young  men 
to  enter  the  silver  industry  at  the  present  time.  For  this  Ameri- 
can manufacturers  and  American  manufacturing  methods  in 
the  silver  industry  would  seem  to  be  largely  responsible.  The 
trade  needs  men  of  rather  exceptional  quality  but  it  actually 
offers  only  highly  specialized  jobs  which  are  not  paid  on  an 
exceptional  basis.  The  industry,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  would 
seem  to  offer  no  more  inducement  on  the  side  of  wages  or  of 
opportunity  than  many  other  lines  of  factory  work,  while  it 
needs  the  equipment  and  talent  of  the  artist-artisan. 

Another  factor  that  is  considered  by  many  to  be  of  great 
importance  is  the  education  of  public  taste  in  regard  to  fine 
design  in  silver.  Thoughtful  persons  feel  that  a  campaign  of 
public  education  must  go  hand  in  hand  with  the  develop- 
ment of  the  designer  and  craftsman.  Silver  is  one  of  the  art 
commodities  that  is  largely  put  forth  in  illustrative  advertis- 
ing, but  a  number  of  manufacturers  are  of  the  opinion  that  in 
addition  articles  in  the  current  home  magazines  would  prove 
an  especially  effective  method  of  reaching  the  woman  con- 
sumer who  represents  the  largest  buyer  and  user  of  silver. 

Another  and  related  element  felt  to  be  a  weakness  in  the 
present  situation  is  the  lack  of  artistic  appreciation  and 
knowledge  of  styles  displayed  by  the  average  salesman.  The 
situation  is  very  similar  to  that  enlarged  upon  in  the  study 
of  carpets  and  rugs  and  would  seem  to  demand  similar  meth- 
ods, namely,  provisions  through  cooperative  measures  of  some 


Design  based  on  extreme  simplicity 
and  refinement  of  form 


Contrasting  design  with  elaborate 

modelled  ornament  illustrating 

intricate  die  cutting 


SILVERWARE  167 

sort  for  talks  upon  the  elements  of  design  and  composition 
and  upon  period  art  with  special  reference  to  silverware. 

Plated  Silverware 

Eight  establishments  manufacturing  plated  ware,  employ- 
ing sixteen  designers,  and  four  establishments  manufacturing 
solely  flat  ware,  employing  eight  designers  were  studied. 

Conditions  in  regard  to  design  in  these  branches  of  the  in- 
dustry are  very  much  the  same  as  those  which  prevail  in  the 
manufacture  of  sterling  silver.  Fewer  designers  are  needed, 
proportionately,  inasmuch  as  this  side  of  the  industry  deals 
almost  entirely  with  stock  or  standard  forms  and  also  because 
the  designs  very  largely  follow  those  developed  for  sterling 
silverware.  The  same  need  for  few,  well-equipped  designers 
is  emphasized  and  the  same  opinions  are  stated  in  regard  to 
the  inadequacy  of  the  present  art  schools  to  meet  this  prob- 
lem by  themselves ;  the  same  convictions  are  also  expressed 
that  the  problem  is  not  likely  to  be  solved  except  by  some 
form  of  cooperation  between  the  art  schools  and  the  manufac- 
turer. 


HIGH-GRADE  FURNITURE 

The  development  of  furniture  manufacture  in  the  United 
States  has  closely  paralleled  the  changes  in  social  and  indus- 
trial conditions  since  the  Revolution  and  has  in  particular 
reflected  the  increase  in  wealth  during  the  last  half  century 
and  the  accompanying  greater  attention  to  comfort  and  lux- 
ury in  the  home. 

After  the  period  of  fine  cabinet-making  formed  on  English 
traditions  during  later  colonial  times  and  the  early  years  of 
the  nineteenth  century,  American  furniture  rapidly  deterio- 
rated both  in  quality  and  design.  With  lack  of  any  standard 
type  and  little  interest  in  fine  home  fittings  on  the  part  of  the 
country's  expanding  population,  our  furniture  for  three- 
quarters  of  a  century  reflected  little  of  artistic  quality  or  of 
traditional  forms. 

The  American  Renaissance  in  furniture  may  be  said  to 
have  had  its  beginning  in  the  eastern  cities  something  over 
thirty  years  ago  when  cultivated  women  of  wealth  began  to 
use  original  examples  of  European  furniture  in  their  homes. , 
Influenced  by  the  growing  authority  of  architects  trained  in 
the  Ecole  de  Beaux-Arts  this  fashion  set  strongly  toward  the 
French  styles  for  a  period  of  perhaps  ten  or  twelve  years. 
With  the  vogue  established  by  these  original  examples  in  the 
finer  homes  the  practice  was  gradually  inaugurated  through- 
out the  furniture  trade  of  copying  and  modifying  similar 
pieces,  with  diminishing  degrees  of  faithfulness  downward 
through  the  successive  grades  of  manufacture.  French  furni- 
ture never  became  domesticated  to  any  considerable  degree 
in  American  homes  because  of  lack  of  harmony  with  the 
general  conditions  of  American  home  life.  English  furniture, 
which  had  always  been  used  more  or  less,  then  became  popu-  J 
lar  and  has  largely  held  sway  up  to  the  present  time.'^Other 
styles  have  also  figured  in  the  situation.  Brought  about  by 
certain  leaders  of  fashion  and  particularly  by  the  influence  of 
Stanford  White,  Italian  furniture  of  the  sixteenth  century 


I70  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

has  been  in  considerable  vogue  during  the  last  ten  years  for 
houses  of  generous  proportions. 

Another  influence  that  has  been  prominent  in  influencing 
popular  taste  was  that  of  the  many  antique  furniture  shops 
so  much  in  evidence  for  the  last  thirty-five  or  forty  years  in 
New  York  and  other  eastern  cities.  The  rising  level  of  popular 
taste  among  educated  people  found  many  opportunities  in 
these  places  for  the  purchase  of  originals,  either  colonial  or 
English  made,  of  fine  quality  both  as  to  design  and  workman- 
ship and  the  influence  of  these  examples  in  homes  of  moderate 
income  has  exerted  a  considerable  influence  towards  the 
fashion  of  period  styles. 

A  similar  influence  in  educating  public  taste  and  in  furnish- 
ing suggestive  examples  to  the  designer  has  been  exerted  by 
the  numerous  auction  sales  of  English,  Italian  and  other 
furniture  that  have  occurred  in  New  York  City  during  the 
last  fifteen  years. 

The  reproduction  of  fine  European 
Nature  of  examples  has,  in  these  ways,  come  to 

THE  Demand  for        form  the  main  business  of  the  high- 
Designs  grade  furniture  establishments  which 

center  in  New  York,  Boston  and 
Philadelphia.  Influenced  by  the  practice  of  the  expensive 
makers  the  manufacturers  of  medium-grade  furniture  have 
for  the  last  twenty  years  also  adopted  almost  uniformly  the 
policy  of  period  reproductions.  In  the  case  of  this  furniture, 
however,  the  reproductions  have  been  to  a  large  extent  not 
exact  copies  but  modifications  of  original  examples  to  suit  the 
popular  taste  and  to  better  meet  the  requirements  of  econom- 
ical manufacture. 

High-grade  furniture  is  designed  both  by  interior  decora- 
tors, who  may  or  may  not  maintain  their  own  factories,  and 
by  manufacturing  establishments  which  maintain  their  own 
showrooms  as  well  as  execute  work  for  special  orders.  Pro- 
duction of  fine  furniture  is  often  associated  with  the  design 
and  execution  of  interior  woodwork  and  in  such  case  is  often 
made  as  part  of  a  complete  decorative  scheme. 


An  accurate  reproduction  in  mahogany  of  a  fine  English  secretary  of  the  \%tb  century 


HIGH-GRADE  FURNITURE  171 

Aside  from  the  decorators,  concerns 
Where  Designs        manufacturing  fine  furniture  seldom 
ARE  Obtained  employ  more  than  two  men  in  the 

design  department,  one  of  whom  may- 
be a  designer,  the  other  a  draftsman .  In  some  cases  the  proprietor 
performs  the  function  of  designer  and,  in  still  other  cases, 
what  designing  is  needed  is  done  outside  the  establishment. 

Records  were  obtained  from  fifteen  establishments  produc- 
ing high-grade  furniture.  In  one  of  these  firms  the  superin- 
tendent of  the  factory  is  the  draftsman  and  makes  the 
working  drawings  from  sketches  made  by  the  head  of  the 
establishment  or  persons  outside  the  establishment.  In  all 
of  the  other  firms,  however,  designers  are  employed  who 
make  the  designs  for  new  pieces.  Three  firms  state  that 
occasionally  a  design  is  purchased  outside  the  establishment 
from  free-lance  designers  at  prices  ranging  from  $5  to  $40  or 
more.  It  is  stated  that  the  sketches  bought  outside  are 
usually  satisfactory  but  that  the  full-size  working  drawings 
often  have  to  be  redrawn  before  they  can  be  used. 

While  several  establishment  representatives  state  that  orig- 
inal samples  of  antique  furniture  are  imported  for  purposes 
of  reproduction,  only  one  establishment  purchases  designs  in 
Europe.  The  representative  of  this  firm  states  that  he  con- 
siders European  designs  very  much  superior  in  ornament  and 
composition  and  in  clearness  and  accuracy  in  rendering  to  de- 
signs produced  in  the  United  States.  With  this  exception 
opinion  was  uniformly  expressed  that  there  was  no  advantage 
in  purchasing  designs  from  Europe. 

In  high-grade  furniture  design  out- 
How  New  Designs      side  agents  often  influence  the  char- 
ARE  Defined  acter  of  the  design  to  be  developed. 

A  client,  the  architect,  or  interior 
decorator,  may  define  quite  definitely  the  nature  of  a  design. 
Usually,  however,  a  member  of  the  firm  or  the  head  designer 
is  responsible.  When  suggestions  for  new  styles  are  brought 
to  the  firm  through  salesmen,  clients  or  their  agents,  the  final 
approval  of  the  design  is  usually  left  to  the  production  man- 


172  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

ager,  while  the  working  out  of  the  details  is  left  to  the  de- 
signer. In  four  establishments  studied  the  head  designer 
performs  both  these  functions. 

The  records  obtained  show  that  in  the  majority  of  cases 
the  person  responsible  for  new  designs  has  been  developed 
through  practical  experience  in  the  business.  In  only  three 
instances  was  it  reported  that  he  had  had  an  art-school  train- 
ing. In  one  case  the  training  was  that  of  an  architect  in  the 
ficole  des  Beaux-Arts  in  Paris,  while  two  others  studied  in  art 
schools  in  the  United  States. 

Drawings  made  in  developing  the  de- 
WoRK  OF  Designers  sign  for  a  piece  of  furniture  are  pre- 
liminary sketches — which  may  be 
in  perspective  or  elevation — scale  drawings,  and  full-size 
detail  drawings.  The  first  two  are  made  during  the  process  of 
developing  the  design.  The  full-size  detail  forms  the  working 
drawing  that  goes  to  the  shop.  The  designer  often  makes  the 
preliminary  designs  while  a  draftsman  makes  the  full-size 
details.  The  designer,  however,  is  sometimes  also  the  factory 
superintendent  and  may  develop  the  preliminary  sketches  as 
well  as  the  working  details. 

In  the  past  a  large  share  of  furniture 
Training  of         designers  came  from  Europe  but  this 
Designers  would  seem  to  be  no  longer  the  case. 

A  considerable  proportion  of  the  de- 
signers were  found  to  have  obtained  their  training  under  com- 
mercial conditions,  in  a  few  cases  beginning  as  craftsmen.  In 
a  number  of  cases  this  commercial  training  had  been  supple- 
mented by  instruction  in  night  art  schools.  A  comparatively 
small  number  had  their  primary  training  in  a  day  art  school 
before  they  entered  business.  Opinions  were  pretty  generally 
expressed  that  the  foreigner  excells  the  American  in  his 
thorough  grounding  in  the  fundamentals  of  furniture  design 
and  is  liable  to  be  more  accurate,  finished,  and  rapid  in  his 
execution  of  detail  drawings.  His  training  generally  starts 
in  at  an  earlier  stage  and  continues  longer.  In  the  case  of  the 
American  school  product  it  is  often  found  that  his  instruction 


HIGH-GRADE  FURNITURE  173 

has  dealt  only  with  the  making  of  preliminary  sketches  and 
has  not  involved  the  making  of  detailed  drawings.  This 
situation  is  reported  as  undergoing  a  change,  and  today 
American  designers  are  being  developed  in  more  thorough 
fashion.  For  one  thing  it  was  reported  that  their  school  train- 
ing often  involves  the  making  of  carefully  measured  drawings 
of  museum  pieces  both  in  scale  and  detail. 

Sixty-two  or  more  designers  are  employed  in  the  fifteen 
establishments  studied.  Fifty-one  of  these  were  trained  in  the 
United  States  and  nine  in  Europe,  and  two  studied  in  Europe 
after  an  art-school  experience  in  the  United  States.  Of  the 
fifty-one  trained  wholly  in  the  United  States  eight  studied  in 
day  art  schools,  thirty  were  trained  entirely  through  prac- 
tical experience  in  the  trade,  and  thirteen  were  trained  in  the 
industry  supplemented  by  study  in  evening  art  schools. 

The   salaries   reported   range   from 

Remuneration  of       ^1,500  to  $3,000  per  year  for  assist- 

Designers  ant  designers  to  $5,000  or  $6,000  per 

year  for  head  designers.  In  none  of 
the  establishments  is  there  a  general  scheme  of  salary  pro- 
gression, advancement  being  made  on  the  merit  basis.  One 
firm,  however,  reports  that  a  bonus  is  given  to  the  men  but 
that  this  also  is  made  on  a  merit  basis. 

Manufacturers  report  difficulty  in  ob- 

Demand  for  taining  young  persons  of  satisfactory 

Designers  quality  to  enter  their  design  rooms. 

The  most  evident  cause  of  this  diffi- 
culty would  seem  to  be  the  considerable  period  of  preparation 
required  and  the  moderate  salary  available  before  a  respon- 
sible position  can  be  reached. 

It  has  been  suggested  that  young  women  might  be  of  assist- 
ance to  a  limited  degree  in  furniture  design.  It  is  doubtful,  how- 
ever, if  they  would  be  of  value  in  the  drafting  room  or  factory 
in  making  detail  drawings  and  superintending  their  execution. 
One  field  in  which  women  are  available  is  that  of  pain  ted  furni- 
ture, which  has  become  very  popular  in  recent  years.  Women 
have  been  successful  intheshop  as  decorative  painters  and  have 
found  here  a  work  forwhichtheyseemtobeparticularlysuited. 


174  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

The  qualities  emphasized  as  essential 
Training  in  the  successful  designer  are  a  high 

Recommended  by       degree  of  skill  in  execution  both  of 
Establishment         sketches  and  working  drawings,  an 
Representatives       understanding  of  technical  processes 
of  production  and  an  intimate  knowl- 
edge of  furniture  styles  and  details. 

Among  weak  points  in  the  equipment  of  many  furniture 
designers  that  are  particularly  stressed  by  employers  are  the 
following:  the  tendency  to  draw  something  that  is  not  wanted 
and  a  strong  desire  to  make  original  designs.  Lack  of  knowl- 
edge of  structural  details  is  sometimes  mentioned,  but  on  the 
whole  does  not  seem  to  be  held  as  a  serious  defect  as  it  is 
generally  considered  that  knowledge  of  this  kind  can  be 
readily  gained  in  time.  The  idea  has  sometimes  been  expressed 
that  a  designer  should  have  actually  worked  with  the  tools 
as  a  furniture  craftsman.  It  would  appear  to  be  a  fact,  how- 
ever, that  the  majority  of  the  best  designers  have  never  had 
actual  training  at  the  bench.  General  opinion  also  seems  to 
hold  that  craft  work  is  not  an  essential  in  the  designers'  equip- 
ment. The  opinion  is  expressed  however  that  if  designers  are 
to  be  trained  in  schools,  it  is  essential  that  provisions  be  made 
by  which  the  meaning  of  technical  details  can  be  thoroughly 
explained  to  students  on  the  one  hand,  and  opportunities  to 
study  actual  factory  processes  developed  on  the  other. 

The  value  of  architecture  in  furniture  design  is  regarded 
as  that  of  a  finishing  study.  Nothing  else  will  give  an  equal 
understanding  of  structural  design  and  of  the  origin  of  most 
ornamental  forms  in  furniture.  The  opinion  was  often  em- 
phasized that  the  best  furniture  designers  in  the  future  will 
be  those  who  have  had  a  fair  amount  of  instruction  in  this  art. 

Views  as  to  the  training  of  designers 
Training  were  obtained   from   ten   designers 

Recommended  by       employed  in  the  establishments  stud- 
Designers  ied.  The  opinion  was  generally  ex- 

pressed that  a  school  training  can  be 
made  effective  if  proper  subjects  are  well  taught  and  enough 


^ 


^3 


^^ 


.A 


HIGH-GRADE  FURNITURE  175 

time  is  given  by  the  student.  Three  or  four  years  is  an  average 
estimate  of  the  proper  length  of  a  course.  A  general  art  train- 
ing should  come  first,  then  the  special  preparatory  studies, 
and  then  the  technical  studies.  The  course  should  include 
museum  work,  and  afterwards,  preferably  after  a  year  or  so 
in  business,  the  student  should  travel  abroad.  Because  of  the 
limited  demand  for  furniture  designers,  three  state  that  the 
work  in  furniture  design  should  be  undertaken  as  part  of 
another  course  and  not  as  a  separate  course.  It  is  generally 
conceded  that  work  in  drawing  is  of  primary  importance.  The 
course  in  drawing  should  include  sketching,  architectural 
drawing,  perspective,  scale  and  full-size  detail  drawing.  The 
study  of  architectural  elements,  historic  ornaments  and 
period  styles  as  well  as  study  of  materials  should  also  be 
included.  Several  designers  emphasize  the  value  of  study 
in  museums  in  making  measured  drawings.  One  designer 
recommends  the  practice  of  employing  foremen  or  other 
practical  men  from  factories  to  come  to  the  school  to  criticize 
the  work  of  the  students.  It  is  felt  that  more  than  one  man 
should  criticize  the  same  work  so  that  students  may  note  the 
variations  in  practice. 

It  is  evident  that  historic  art  will 

Museum  continue  to  influence  work  in  fiirni- 

CoLLECTioNS  ture  design  for  a  long  time  to  come. 

Designing  in  this  field  at  present  is 
probably  more  dependent  upon  opportunities  to  study  fine 
and  authentic  examples  than  is  the  case  in  any  other  indus- 
try. American  museums  have  developed  considerable  collec- 
tions of  such  examples  the  suggestiveness  of  which  is  by  no 
means  exhausted.  It  is,  however,  generally  felt  by  manufac- 
turers that  our  museums  have  developed  their  collections 
much  more  with  an  eye  to  historic  completeness  than  to 
presenting  examples  of  direct  suggestiveness  in  the  furnishing 
of  modern  homes.  In  this  respect  it  has  been  said  that  no 
museum  collection  in  this  country  rivals  the  exhibit  of  repro- 
ductions that  can  be  found  in  the  showrooms  of  New  York 
manufacturers. 


176  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

All  of  the  fifteen  establishment  representatives  agree  as  to 
the  importance  of  museums.  It  is  generally  felt  that  plates, 
photographs  and  careful  reproductions  should  be  exhibited  as 
well  as  originals.  Five  believe  that  present-day  products 
should  not  be  included,  one  of  these  stating,  however,  that  a 
yearly  exhibit  of  good  designs  might  tend  to  raise  the  standard 
of  designs  throughout  the  country.  The  remaining  ten  repre- 
sentatives take  the  opposite  view,  one  citing  the  exhibition  of 
modern  work  at  the  Musee  des  Arts  Decoratifs  in  Paris  as 
an  example. 

The  museums  in  this  country  which  are  mentioned  as  being 
helpful  to  furniture  designers  are  the  Boston  Museum  of  Fine 
Arts,  the  Metropolitan  Museum  and  the  Cooper  Union 
Museum  in  New  York  City.  All  believe  that  museums  should 
be  open  in  the  evening. 

Furniture  design  in  this  country  has 
Summary  passed  through  several  cultural  ep- 

ochs and  is  at  present  in  practically 
complete  dependence  upon  European  historic  styles.  For  the 
moment,  and  for  some  time  to  come,  such  a  policy  or  prac- 
tice probably  represents  the  best  that  can  be  done.  In  a  field 
that  has  experienced  such  long  and  varied  development  in 
many  countries,  design  has  not  only  reached  high  achieve- 
ments but  has  expressed  itself  in  great  variety  not  only  of 
individual  examples  but  of  styles.  The  practice  of  reproduc- 
ing and  closely  following  these  fine  examples  of  design  un- 
questionably brings  into  American  homes  a  fairly  high  level 
of  design,  even  in  comparatively  inexpensive  furniture,  and 
exercises  in  this  way  a  positive  and  helpful  influence  upon 
popular  taste. 

Development  of  new  styles  of  any  artistic  worth  in  this 
field  can  come  only  gradually.  The  initiative  will  probably 
not  lie  with  the  manufacturers  of  furniture,  but  rather  with 
the  architects  and  interior  decorators.  When  these  find  the 
opportunity  through  the  development  of  new  demands  it  may 
be  expected  that  they  will  not  lack  the  courage  and  ability 
to  break  away  from  precedent  and  develop  new  schemes  of 


HIGH-GRADE  FURNITURE  177 

interior  decoration.  In  such  case  furniture  design  will  quickly 
respond.  If  these  movements  prove  sufficiently  well  considered 
and  express  more  than  a  passing  whim  or  fancy  they  are 
liable  to  affect  the  entire  field  of  furniture  and  inaugurate 
new  styles  and  schools  of  design. 

The  number  of  high-grade  designers  needed  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  fine  furniture  is  not  large,  but  there  is  evidently  a 
distinct  need  for  a  few  superior  individuals  possessed  of  talent 
and  thorough  artistic  and  technical  equipment.  To  train  such 
persons  adequately  will  require  time  and  if  it  is  to  be  accom- 
plished in  day  schools  the  economic  problem  presented  in 
securing  such  a  training  will  be  a  rather  serious  one.  The  kind 
of  American  youth  liable  to  be  attracted  to  this  field  can 
only  in  exceptional  cases  afford  a  three  or  four  years'  training 
beyond  the  age  of  sixteen.  For  this  reason  it  is  very  likely 
that  scholarships  contributed  by  the  trade  would  be  of  much 
assistance  in  this  matter. 

It  is  possible  that  a  thoroughly  developed  day-school  course 
for  furniture  designers  can  be  maintained  successfully  in  New 
York  City.  Whether  conditions  in  Boston,  Philadelphia  or 
other  cities  admit  of  such  a  plan  is  doubtful.  Such  a  training 
should  evidently  be  distinctive  from  the  usual  courses  in 
interior  decoration  now  given  in  a  number  of  art  schools,  but 
because  of  the  small  number  of  designers  that  the  industry 
can  be  counted  on  to  absorb  it  is  probable  that  the  needed 
instruction  can  best  be  developed  in  conjunction  with  such  a 
course  as  an  elective  or  option.  A  course  of  this  nature  while 
giving  its  main  attention  to  furniture  design  should  undoubt- 
edly include  the  subject  of  interior  woodwork  and  give  some 
attention  to  the  whole  subject  of  interior  decoration.  The 
course  of  instruction  should  develop  thorough  technique  in  the 
rendering  both  of  sketches  and  detail  drawings.  The  various 
methods  of  construction  should  be  fully  illustrated.  The  study 
of  the  various  cabinet  woods,  their  qualities  as  to  strength  and 
durability,  methods  of  construction  appropriate  to  each,  and 
methods  of  finishing  should  have  an  important  place.  Un- 
derstanding of  factory  processes  of  production  should  be  de- 


lyS  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

veloped  by  observation  in  a  producing  factory.  A  thorough 
acquaintance  with  period  styles  and  motives  is  obviously 
fundamental.  The  course  should  afford  opportunity  for  direct 
study  in  museums  and  the  making  of  measured  drawings 
from  examples  contained  therein.  There  should  also  be  oppor- 
tunity for  thestudy  of  architecture  both  from  the  standpoint 
of  building  structure  and  of  architectural  forms. 

To  enable  such  a  course  to  keep  in  close  response  to  the 
commercial  situation  it  is  extremely  desirable  that  close 
relations  with  an  advisory  committee  of  trade  experts  be 
developed. 

Because  of  the  difficulties  involved  in  day-school  training 
as  a  preparation  for  furniture  designing  it  is  evident  that  much 
reliance  must  be  placed  in  evening  instruction.  To  the  alert- 
minded,  ambitious  young  cabinet-maker,  carver, or  draftsman 
opportunity  is  presented  in  New  York  City  and  in  many 
other  places  to  acquire  skill  in  free-hand  drawing  and  model- 
ing and  to  study  composition  and  interior  decoration  and 
furniture  design  in  such  instruction.  Joined  with  knowledge  of 
the  technical  side  of  the  trade,  such  studies  earnestly  pursued 
give  opportunities  for  the  young  craftsman  with  talent  to 
become  a  promising  apprentice  in  the  design  room,  and  it  is 
apparently  to  such  provisions  that  the  furniture  trade  must 
look  to  a  considerable  extent  for  the  development  of  re- 
cruits in  this  field. 


MEDIUM-GRADE  FURNITURE 

Beginning  with  the  early  years  of  the  nineteenth  century 
expansion  of  the  country  toward  the  west  became  the  prom- 
inent fact  in  American  life.  The  furniture  problem  as  con- 
cerned with  new  settlements  along  the  Ohio,  the  Mississippi 
and  other  rivers  was  largely  a  question  of  transportation, 
and  it  was  this  element  that  mainly  controlled  the  character 
of  furniture  development  during  the  succeeding  generation. 
The  business  genius  who  organized  methods  of  transport- 
ing furniture  to  the  head-waters  of  the  rivers  and  loading 
on  flat  boats  for  distribution  down  stream  became  the  dom- 
inant factor  in  the  situation.  The  furniture  needed  by  the 
settlers  was  a  kind  in  which  artistic  considerations  played 
little  part,  and  inasmuch  as  this  was  a  period  when  the  tradi- 
tions of  furniture  styles  in  Europe,  and  consequently  in  the 
eastern  seaboard,  had  fallen  away,  this  manufacture  of  rough 
and  ready  furniture  for  the  newer  districts  gradually  domi- 
nated the  whole  American  market. 

Later  came  the  development  of  factories  in  places  in  the 
Middle  West  favorably  situated  in  regard  to  good  lumber. 
These  factories  concentrated  their  attention  mainly  upon  in- 
expensive methods  of  production  through  the  making  of  stan- 
dardized parts.  During  this  period  the  designer  was  almost 
entirely  submerged  in  importance  by  the  business  organizer, 
distributor  and  salesman. 

At  Grand  Rapids,  settled  by  the  Dutch  and  peculiarly 
favored  by  water  power  and  a  liberal  supply  of  timber,  the 
manufacture  of  furniture  began  in  the  late  thirties.  Aided  by 
a  peculiarly  industrious  and  stable  population.  Grand  Rapids 
has  increased  steadily  throughout  the  machinery  epoch  as  a 
center  of  furniture  manufacture. 

This  city  and  large  numbers  of  factories  situated  from  New 
York  state  to  the  Middle  West  have  come  to  supply  the  me- 
dium grade  furniture  consumed  by  the  country  leaving  the 
manufacture  of  the  highest  grade  and  most  expensive  t)'pes 
largely  concentrated  in  a  few  eastern  cities. 


i8o  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

At  the  time  of  the  survey  the  market 
Nature  of  for  medium-grade  furniture,  as  for 

THE  Demand  for       many  other  commodities,  was  ab- 
Designs  normal  due  to  the  fact  that  the  de- 

mand greatly  exceeded  the  output  of 
the  factories.  Most  establishments  were,  in  consequence,  so 
busily  engaged  in  turning  out  staple  patterns  that  little  atten- 
tion was  paid  to  the  creation  of  new  designs.  In  normal 
times,  however,  there  is  a  constant  demand  for  new  designs 
to  replace  lines  that  are  not  selling  well.  One  establishment 
representative  states  that  as  many  as  six  hundred  patterns 
are  carried  at  one  time.  The  demand  for  new  designs  is  usu- 
ally brought  to  the  firm  through  salesmen  who  reflect  the 
needs  of  the  different  localities  in  which  they  work.  Different 
parts  of  the  country  tend  to  particular  variations.  This  is  ex- 
emplified by  the  varied  demands  for  tables,  e.  g.,  round  tables 
are  much  used  in  the  west,  square  tables  in  the  east,  and  long 
narrow  tables  in  the  south. 

Manufacturers  of  medium-grade  furniture  execute  some 
special  design  work  to  the  order  of  clients  whose  architects 
or  interior  decorators  define  the  style,  but  this  is  of  compara- 
tively small  extent. 

In  a  large  number  of  cases  the  facto- 
Where  Designs         ries  are  too  small  to  employ  a  regular 
ARE  Obtained  designer    and    designs    are   usually 

^  obtained  from  persons  who  work  as 

'  free-lances  or  contract  to  devote  a  certain  amount  of  their 
time  to  a  particular  concern.  These  free-lance  men  travel 
from  town  to  town  with  a  collection  of  designs.  If  a  manufac- 
turer decides  to  buy  some  of  the  sketches  the  designer  makes 
the  details  at  the  factory  and  then  passes  to  the  next  town. 
It  is  reported  that  many  of  these  men  know  little  about  de- 
signing or  manufacture  and  make  a  very  uncertain  living, 
but  some  of  the  more  successful  ones  are  reputed  to  make 
from  fifteen  to  twenty  thousand  a  year.  The  number  of  de- 
signers of  this  class  has  been  greatly  reduced  in  the  last  few 
years  because  of  the  lack  of  change  in  stock  patterns. 


MEDIUM-GRADE  FURNITURE  i8i 

It  is  reported  that  free-lance  men  rarely  do  as  good  work 
as  designers  employed  at  a  salary,  partly  because  they  can- 
not understand  the  requirements  of  the  individual  factory  so 
well  and  partly  because  after  making  the  full-size  drawing 
they  lack  the  opportunity  of  observing  the  production  of  the 
actual  piece  of  furniture. 

Sixteen  of  the  twenty  establishments  studied  employ  de- 
signers. Except  in  one  establishment,  where  about  one-third 
of  the  designs  used  are  purchased  outside  from  free-lance 
designers,  the  designing  staffs  are  depended  upon  for  the 
development  of  new  designs. 

Three  of  the  firms  which  employ  no  designers  depend  en- 
tirely upon  free-lance  artists  for  their  designs.  In  one  other 
establishment  a  member  of  the  firm  was  the  designer. 

Two  of  the  firms  employing  designing  staffs  state  that 
occasionally  designs  are  purchased  from  outside  sources  in 
order  to  obtain  new  ideas  and  to  give  their  designers  another 
viewpoint.  Fifteen  representatives  state  that  they  do  not 
consider  the  existence  of  designers  outside  the  establishment 
as  valuable  because  of  the  inability  of  the  free-lance  designers 
to  study  the  product  as  it  develops  and  their  limited  under- 
standing of  machine  production.  Five  others  believe  that  the 
free-lance  designer  is  a  desirable  and  valuable  factor,  because 
he  brings  new  ideas  and  suggestions  to  the  small  manufac- 
turer and  because  many  small  firms  cannot  afford  to  employ 
an  efficient  designer. 

None  of  the  firms  studied  purchase  any  designs  in  Europe. 
It  is  quite  generally  felt  that  modern  European  designs  are 
very  much  inferior  to  the  American  for  medium-grade  furni- 
ture. 

In  this  class  of  furniture  work  pat- 
How  New  Designs      terns  are  changed  only  when  they 
ARE  Defined  cease  to  be  popular.  The  introduction 

of  new  designs  slows  up  the  speed  of 
production  and  inevitably  increases  the  expense. 

Usually  sketches  are  made  by  the  designers  in  the  estab- 
lishments and  are  submitted  to  representatives  of  the  sales 


1 82  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

force  for  criticism.  Certain  of  these  are  selected  and  carried 
into  full-size  drawings.  In  some  cases  a  single  sample  is  made 
from  the  selected  design  for  further  study  on  the  part  of  the 
designer.  In  other  cases  samples  are  made  up  and  photo- 
graphed and  taken  by  the  salesmen  to  the  retailers.  If  the  de- 
sign is  acceptable  to  the  retailers  the  pattern  is  then  executed 
in  quantity.  Sometimes  a  small  quantity  is  made  up  at  once 
and  tested  directly  as  to  public  demands.  In  some  establish- 
ments a  member  of  the  firm  working  with  the  designer  fixes 
the  character  of  new  designs  without  a  preliminary  testing  out. 

The  establishments  visited  all  manu-  ^ 
Work  of  Designers     facture  furniture  in  large  quantities    ' 

or  cuttings.  No  one  man  carries  the 
work  of  any  piece  of  furniture  to  completion,  but  usually    \ 
operates  a  machine  that  performs  some  one  detail  of  the   I 
manufacturing  process.  \/ 

For  this  reason  it  is  not  necessary  for  the  labor  to  be  skilled   | 
cabinet-makers,  as  inexperienced  help  can  be  quickly  trained    i 
to  operate  most  of  the  machines.  In  many  factories  girls  do 
some  of  the  work. 

As  a  rule  the  designers  are  allowed  plenty  of  time  to  make 
a  design  and  turn  out  only  a  limited  number  in  a  year.  The 
rest  of  their  time  is  devoted  to  the  supervision  of  production 
in  the  factory  or  in  travel  for  study,  or  visiting  buyers  and 
concerns  selling  the  products  of  rival  furniture  manufacturers. 

No  women  designers  were  found  in  any  of  the  establish- 
ments visited.  The  explanation  is  probably  that  designers 
are  often  required  to  supervise  the  production  of  furniture  in 
the  factory.  The  requirements  of  travel  and  visiting  buyers 
are  also  met  more  readily  by  a  man  than  a  woman. 

Rough  sketches  are  first  made  by  the  designers.  Those 
selected  are  then  developed  in  detail  and  large-scale  drawings. 
Sometimes  perspective  sketches  in  pencil,  pen,  or  color  are  ( 
made  for  salesmen.  The  scale  drawing  goes  to  the  shop  and 
samples  are  made  up.  Any  changes  deemed  desirable  are 
made  before  a  large  number  of  pieces  are  turned  out.  This 
study  of  effect  in  the  actual  piece  is  essential  in  furniture. 


MEDIUM-GRADE  FURNITURE  183 

particularly  in  the  case  of  chairs  where  the  size  and  proportion 
of  such  members  as  stringers,  crossbars  and  legs  is  often  very 
different  when  seen  at  an  angle  from  the  effect  as  viewed  in 
a  projection  drawing.y 

Although  the  aim  of  the  designer  is  generally  to  create  a 
design  of  the  finest  quality,  he  is  much  limited  by  machine 
requirements,  the  cost,  and  popular  taste.  As  one  designer 
points  out,  when  the  public  demands  Italian  designs,  it  does 
not  mean  true  Italian  style,  but  the  popular  conception  of 
that  style. 

In  this  class  of  furniture  work  the  only  men  who  can  be 
called  craft  workers  are  the  carvers.  Most  hand-carving  has 
been  eliminated  from  this  class  of  furniture  owing  to  the  cost, 
and  a  cast  composition  from  a  carved  original  is  used  instead. 
This  composition  is  sometimes  made  at  the  factory  and  in 
that  case  a  carver  is  necessary  to  make  the  original.  In  many 
cases  this  ornament  is  bought  from  concerns  who  make  a 
specialty  of  this  work  and  have  a  great  variety  of  designs  in 
catalogue  form  for  the  designers  to  select  from. 

Most  of  the  carvers  are  of  foreign  birth  or  parentage,  as 
American  boys  do  not  seem  to  take  kindly  to  this  work.  In 
Grand  Rapids  schools  of  carving  have  been  opened  by  the 
manufacturers  but  have  failed  to  attract  boys  to  the  trade. 
Most  of  the  carvers  seem  to  be  Swedish,  German  or  Italian. 
Twenty-two  designers  are  employed 
Training  by  sixteen  firms.  Three  of  these  are 

OF  Designers  employed  only  part  time  and  three 

others  act  in  the  capacity  of  factory 
superintendent  as  well  as  designer  for  their  respective  estab- 
lishments. Thirteen  of  the  twenty-two  designers  employed 
were  trained  wholly  in  the  United  States,  five  in  art  schools, 
seven  in  commercial  practice  and  one  in  commercial  practice 
supplemented  by  attendance  upon  evening  art  school  classes. 
Five  designers  were  trained  wholly  in  Europe.  Of  these  three 
attended  day  art  schools,  one  in  Paris  (Ecole  Boulle)  and 
two  in  England.  One  was  trained  in  commercial  practice  in 
England  and  one  in  Sweden.   Three  other  designers  were 


i84  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

trained  first  in  art  schools  in  the  United  States  supplemented 
by  later  study  in  Europe.  One  other  studied  in  art  schools 
in  Germany  followed  by  commercial  experience  and  attend- 
ance in  Sunday  art  classes  in  the  United  States. 

Many  of  these  designers  have  had  many  years  of  experience 
in  interior  decoration  design  of  a  high  grade.  This  under- 
standing of  high-grade  furniture  and  its  proper  placement 
has  given  them  a  good  background  for  their  present  work. 
Very  few  of  the  prominent  designers  were  found  to  have  had 
shop  training  of  any  kind. 

Attempts  to  develop  young  art-school  graduates  in  the 
design  rooms  were  rarely  found.  In  one  case,  however,  the 
representative  of  an  establishment  where  two  designers  had 
received  training  in  an  art  school  states  that  he  would  en- 
deavor to  secure  new  designers  from  the  same  school  should 
the  need  arise. 

Many  of  the  better  designers  in  Grand  Rapids  are  English 
but  they  are  hardly  in  the  majority.  Most  of  them  have  had 
decorative  experience  with  high-grade  establishments  in  New 
York  or  London.  They  do  not  seem  to  have  had  any  special 
schooling  in  England.  A  large  manufacturer  of  bedroom 
furniture  employs  French  designers  because  the  firm  makes 
many  bedroom  sets  in  the  French  periods. 

In  Rockford,  111.,  most  of  the  designers  are  developed  locally 
from  carvers  or  from  men  with  shop  experience.  These  de- 
signers are  mostly  old  men  and  the  manufacturers  are  seri- 
ously considering  the  problem  of  replacing  these  men  when 
they  are  no  longer  able  to  do  the  work. 

Records  were  obtained  from  nine  free-lance  designers  of 
furniture:  Six  were  trained  wholly  in  the  United  States.  Of 
these  one  attended  a  day  art  school,  four  were  trained  wholly 
in  commercial  practice  and  one  was  trained  in  commercial 
practice  supplemented  by  the  study  of  drawing  in  an  evening 
art  school.  Two  were  trained  wholly  in  Europe,  one  in  a  day 
art  school  and  through  museum  study  in  Austria,  Germany, 
Belgium  and  England,  while  the  other  spent  considerable 
time  studying  in  museums  in  England,  making  measured 


~« 


«s 


■^ 


MEDIUM-GRADE  FURNITURE  185 

drawings  and  sketches  of  furniture.  Later  he  was  employed 
in  the  design  room  of  one  of  the  largest  furniture  manufac- 
turers in  London.  One  other,  after  studying  for  several  years 
in  an  art  school  in  the  United  States  continued  his  training 
in  art  schools  in  France  and  Germany. 

Designers  in  Grand  Rapids  and  to  some  extent  in  other 
places,  are  often  allowed  to  travel  and  study  at  the  expense  of 
the  manufacturer,  as  the  latter  considers  it  necessary  to  keep 
his  men  well  informed  as  to  the  latest  developments  in  furni- 
ture design  and  to  afford  them  all  possible  stimulation. 

The  salaries  of  designers  range  from 

Remuneration  of       $3,500  to  $5,000  per  year.  Free-lance 

Designers  artists  receive  from  $10  to  $100  for 

designs,  depending  upon  the  number 

of  pieces  in  the  suite. 

There  seems  to  be  no  shortage  of  de- 
Demand  signers  in  this  field,  and  although  the 

FOR  Designers  common  desire  was  often  expressed 

for  superior  talent  it  is  evident  that 
the  number  of  well-equipped  interior  decorators  available  is 
sufficient  to  supply  the  demand  in  a  fairly  satisfactory  manner. 
In  this  matter  of  designers  the  quantity  production  manu- 
facturer can  usually  afford  to  outpay  the  interior  decorator. 
In  interior  decoration  the  expense  of  the  design  forms  an 
item  in  the  cost  of  the  individual  piece  while  in  the  quantity 
production  factories  this  item  is  but  a  small  part  of  a  widely 
distributed  overhead  charge. 

Weak  points  in  the  equipment  of  de- 
Training  signers  are  said  to  be  lack  of  knowl- 

Recommended  by       edge  of  historic  ornament,  of  feeling 
Establishment         for  good  line  and  proportion,  and  of 
Representatives       understanding   of   factory    require- 
ments. Two  of  the  representatives 
state  that  it  takes  the  average  designer  about  two  years  to 
pick  up  the  needed  technical  knowledge.  It  is  felt  that  the 
personal  qualities  needed  in  a  designer  are  creative  imagin- 
ation, sensitiveness  to  new  ideas  and  accuracy. 


186  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

The  majority  of  the  representatives  state  that  a  good  foun- 
dation for  beginning  work  in  a  design  room  can  be  gained  in 
art  schools  if  the  needed  subjects  are  taught  and  taught  ef- 
fectively. Sixteen  believe  that  craft  work,  or  rather  study  of 
the  processes  of  production,  should  have  a  place  in  the  school 
curriculum.  On  the  other  hand,  few  held  the  view  that  a  de- 
signer should  have  any  special  shop  experience  and  many 
employers  were  of  the  opinion  that  if  a  designer  had  made 
very  much  of  a  study  of  construction  problems  his  design  is 
likely  to  be  lacking  in  beauty  of  line  and  proportion.  While  it 
is  necessary  for  the  successful  designer  to  understand  the 
limitations  of  the  machinery  of  his  particular  plant  and  the 
class  of  labor  employed  the  opinion  was  generally  expressed 
that  such  understanding  can  be  readily  gained  in  the  course 
of  practice. 

It  is  uniformly  considered  impracticable  for  the  student  to 
perform  commercial  work  for  sale  while  in  school.  Ten  repre- 
sentatives believe  that  evening  classes  may  be  very  helpful 
in  training  designers,  especially  beginners. 

Some  manufacturers  in  Rockford,  111.,  have  gone  to  the 
trouble  of  training  several  young  men  to  fill  the  places  which 
will  be  vacant  when  the  present  designers  retire,  and  have 
found  positions  for  the  young  men  either  as  assistants  to  the 
older  designers  or  in  smaller  factories.  This  was  the  only 
place  where  the  manufacturers  seemed  concerned  with  the 
development  of  the  younger  designers.  In  other  places  the 
manufacturers  felt  that  they  could  not  afford  the  time  neces- 
sary for  such  training,  preferring  to  obtain  well-equipped  men 
from  interior  decorating  establishments  and  then  to  train 
them  to  the  needs  of  their  particular  class  of  manufacture. 
They  were  of  the  opinion  that  such  antecedent  training  is 
necessary  to  give  the  proper  cultural  background  which  they 
believe  can  only  be  gained  by  working  upon  complete  schemes 
of  decoration  and  furnishing.  The  claim  is  made  that  when 
such  designers  are  later  put  to  quantity  production  work  in 
furniture  this  early  influence  tends  to  elevate  the  standard  of 
design  in  this  grade  of  work.  Through  this  system  of  securing 


MEDIUM-GRADE  FURNITURE  187 

designers  it  is  stated  that  furniture  has  vastly  improved  in 
appearance  in  the  last  ten  years. 

Most  of  the  manufacturers  seem  to  favor  a  cultural  educa- 
tion for  their  designers  rather  than  a  man  who  has  grown  up 
in  the  shop.  They  say  the  shop  knowledge  necessary  can 
easily  be  acquired  after  the  designer  is  in  the  business  but 
that  refinement  of  taste  must  be  acquired  in  their  schooling 
or  previous  surroundings. 

Views  as  to  school  training  of  design- 
Training  ers  were  expressed  by  twelve  design- 

Recommended  by       ers  employed  in  the  establishments 
Designers  studied.  The  following  elements  were 

emphasized  as  desirable  in  such  train- 
ing: drawing  and  modeling  of  historic  ornament,  drafting, 
projection  and  perspective,  study  of  period  furniture  design, 
making  full-size  detail  drawings,  study  of  architectural  mo- 
tives and  styles,  practice  in  making  measured  drawings  from 
specimens  of  furniture.  Four  designers  recommended  that  craft 
work  be  included.  One  recommended  that  a  man  spend  two 
years  in  a  shop,  then  two  years  in  a  school  studying  ornament 
and  drawing. 

Seven  free-lance  designers  expressed  opinions.  One  recom- 
mends that  the  work  be  undertaken  mainly  in  a  museum, 
making  sketches  and  measured  drawings  and  that  general 
art  training  accompany  this  work.  One  believes  that  the 
training  can  all  be  acquired  in  a  shop.  The  five  others  believe 
that  the  training  should  be  gained  in  an  art  school.  Two  of 
these  believe  that  the  course  in  furniture  design  should  be 
included  as  a  branch  in  some  other  course  such  as  interior 
woodwork  or  interior  decoration.  It  is  believed  that  drawing 
from  the  cast  and  life,  modeling,  training  in  the  principles  of 
design,  history  of  art,  study  of  historic  styles  and  elements 
of  architecture  should  be  emphasized.  Four  believe  that  work 
in  general  art  should  precede  specialized  work  in  design.  Two 
believe  that  craft  work  should  be  taught,  one  believes  that  it 
is  not  necessary  but  that  it  would  be  helpful,  while  four 
believe  that  it  should  not  be  taught.  The  majority  believe 


1 88  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

that  students  should  not  make  designs  for  the  market  while 
in  school.  From  two  to  four  years  is  mentioned  as  the  desir- 
able length  of  school  course. 

All  consider  museum  collections  of 
Museum  furniture  as  of  great  importance  in 

Collections  the  training  of  beginners  as  well  as  in 

affording  inspiration  to  the  experi- 
enced designer.  While  it  is  admitted  that  original  specimens 
are  best,  it  is  generally  believed  that  good  reproductions  and 
photographs  are  very  useful.  There  is  a  division  of  opinion  as 
to  the  value  of  including  present-day  artistic  products,  the 
majority  feeling  that  they  should  be  so  included.  One  repre- 
sentative states  that  a  yearly  display  of  artistic  furniture 
would  tend  to  better  design  and  more  conservative  buying. 
The  museums  which  are  mentioned  as  being  very  helpful  are 
the  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art  and  the  Cooper  Union 
Museum  in  New  York  City.  All  believe  that  such  museums 
should  be  open  in  the  evenings. 

It  is  apparent  that  the  requirements 
Summary  placed  upon  the  designer  of  medium- 

grade  furniture  are  fully  as  onerous 
as  in  the  case  of  the  designer  of  the  finer  product.  It  is  also 
clear  from  the  findings  that  the  remuneration  paid  in  the 
large  establishments  producing  moderately  priced  furniture 
is  equal  to  that  received  by  the  designer  whose  work  is 
marked  by  more  exact  period  quality.  The  breadth  of  training 
needed  by  the  man  at  Grand  Rapids  is  apparently  as  great  as 
that  needed  by  his  New  York  confrere,  and  the  requirements 
of  the  situation  seem  to  be  so  similar  that  the  summary  in 
regard  to  training  possibilities  for  the  designer  of  high-grade 
furniture  would  seem  to  apply  equally  well  to  the  conditions 
represented  in  medium-grade  furniture. 


LIGHTING  FIXTURES 

Within  recent  years  there  has  been  a 

Nature  of  the         great  development  in  the  production 

Demand  for  of  lighting  fixtures,  not  only  from  the 

Designs  standpoint  of  utility  but  from  that 

of  beauty  of  design.  Electricity  has 

called  attention  to  new  possibilities  in  methods  of  lighting 

and  these  possibilities  have  added  greatly  to  the  scope  of  the 

designer  and  the  opportunity  for  artistic  effects. 

The  number  and  variety  of  fixtures  in  use  have  become  so 
extensive  and  their  decorative  possibilities  so  great  as  to 
raise  the  question  of  the  suitability  of  the  word  "fixture." 
Manufacturers  feel  that  the  term  is  not  adequate  and  are 
considering  the  adoption  of  other  words  such  as  "furniture" 
and  "illuminator." 

As  in  most  art  industries,  two  classes  of  manufacturers  are 
represented:  the  high-grade  special-order  firms  and  the 
establishments  producing  moderately  priced  goods  in  large 
quantities.  Some  firms  cater  to  a  fairly  high-class  custom 
trade  and  produce  in  quantities  at  the  same  time.  The 
establishments  producing  the  finest  products  do  not  confine 
themselves  strictly  to  lighting  fixtures,  but  produce  as  well 
decorative  bronze,  iron  and  other  metal  goods  for  the  equip- 
ment of  either  residences,  hotels  or  commercial  buildings. 
These  high-grade  establishments  are  well  equipped  to 
undertake  metal  work  of  almost  any  kind  and  are  daily 
adding  to  their  creations  in  the  production  of  decorative 
bronzes,  grills,  tablets  and  other  ornamental  work.  In  the 
industry  as  a  whole  many  trades  are  employed,  with  all  of 
which  the  designer  must  become  familiar  as  to  processes 
and  materials. 

Establishments  dealing  with  quantity  production  do  not 
generally  confine  themselves  to  the  production  of  lighting 
fixtures.  Even  in  this  field  demand  for  improved  quality  of 
designs  is  constantly  growing. 


I90  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

All   of  the   establishments   studied 
Where  Designs  are     employ  designers  upon  whom  they 
Obtained  depend  for  new  designs.  No  designs 

are  purchased  outside  the  establish- 
ments from  free-lance  designers  and  none  are  bought  in 
Europe  although  models  and  antique  examples  are  often 
imported. 

In  establishments  where  custom  work 
How  New  Designs      is  carried  on,  clients,  their  architects 
ARE  Defined  or    decorators    often    define    quite 

specifically  the  scheme  that  they  wish 
developed.  The  type  of  design,  dimensions,  extent  of  elab- 
orations, cost,  motives,  etc.,  are  commonly  indicated  in 
such  cases. 

The  art  director  of  the  establishment  may  make  suggestions 
which  are  often  accepted,  but  this  type  of  work  usually  in- 
volves conditions  presenting  limited  scope  for  originality.  It 
remains  for  the  designer  to  put  the  problem  in  a  practical  and 
at  the  same  time  beautiful  form  and  to  add  whatever  is  neces- 
sary in  structural  or  ornamental  details.  The  work  of  the 
designer  is  usually  supervised  by  a  member  of  the  firm  or  an 
art  director.  This  person  commonly  defines  quite  definitely  the 
character  of  the  stock  designs  made  by  the  firm.  Much  of  the 
responsibility  for  the  success  of  the  designs  evolved  by  these 
firms  rests  with  the  art  director. 

In  one  firm  the  partners  in  the  firm  as  well  as  the  sales- 
men supervise  the  quality  of  all  designs.  These  men  were 
all  developed  through  commercial  training.  The  art  direc- 
tors of  two  other  establishments  were  also  developed  in 
the  business. 

These  men  bring  high  critical  and  in  some  cases  creative 
ability  to  bear  on  the  artistic  quality  of  new  products.  The 
other  three  art  directors  have  received  training  in  designing; 
one  attended  art  schools  in  the  United  States,  supplemented 
by  travel  abroad,  while  the  other  two  were  trained  in  art 
schools  abroad.  One  of  the  latter  also  traveled  extensively  in 
Europe  and  in  the  Orient. 


Electric  light  standard  in  which  the  effect  is 
dependent  on  richly  ornamented  metal  work 


LIGHTING  FIXTURES  T91 

Establishments  making  lighting  fix- 
WoRK  tures  and  metal  art  work  sometimes 

OF  Designers  employ  a  large  number  of  designers 

and  draftsmen  who  represent  varieties 
of  equipment.  Those  with  greatest  ability  and  training  are  en- 
trusted with  the  designs  while  draftsmen  make  the  full-size  de- 
tails. The  largest  concerns  employ  as  many  as  twenty  to  twenty- 
fivedesigners  and  draftsmen  whileinthesmallest  establishment 
studied  one  person  acts  in  both  these  capacities.  Two  to  four 
men  represent  the  average  staff  found  in  the  establishments. 
The  drawings  required  are  preliminary  sketches,  which  may  be 
in  perspective  or  elevation,  scale  drawings  and  full-size  details. 
Concerns  soliciting  business  from  architects  and  decorators 
make  a  great  many  sketches  to  represent  either  new  designs 
or  fixtures  in  stock.  These  are  generally  expressed  in  pencil 
but  are  often  rendered  in  other  media  and  require  much  skill. 
Full-size  details  are  made  for  the  work  in  the  shop.  When 
intended  for  new  work  they  must  be  made  with  particular 
care  in  regard  to  ornament  and  structural  details.  In  the  case 
of  altering  stock  fixtures,  which  is  a  common  practice,  detail 
drawings  are  made  showing  only  the  altered  or  new  parts. 

In  all  these  establishments  processes  of  reproduction  and 
duplication  are  largely  used.  In  this  way  a  large  quantity  of 
patterns  accumulate  which  are  extremely  valuable.  The  de- 
signer has,  consequently,  before  him  very  frequently  the 
problem  of  combining  these  patterns  with  new  work  or  modi- 
fying them  to  meet  new  demands. 

The  six  establishments  studied  em- 
Training  ploy  a  total  of  fourteen  designers  and 

OF  Designers  thirty-seven   draftsmen.   Eleven   of 

the  fourteen  designers  were  trained 
in  the  United  States,  three  in  day  art  schools  and  six  in  com- 
mercial practice  supplemented  by  study  in  evening  art 
schools  and  two  wholly  in  commercial  practice.  The  re- 
maining three  designers  had  their  first  training  in  art  schools 
in  Europe,  supplemented  by  later  study  in  the  United  States. 
Four  of  the  designers  report  that  they  have  traveled  in 


192  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

Europe,  making  sketches  and  measured  drawings  in  museums, 
after  taking  up  work  in  this  field. 

Of  the  thirty-seven  draftsmen,  thirty-five  were  trained  in 
commercial  practice  in  the  United  States  and  two  in  commer- 
cial practice  in  Europe. 

With  one  exception  it  is  stated  that  the  work  of  designers 
employed  at  a  fixed  salary  tends  to  deteriorate  after  a  time. 
Measures  reported  by  establishment  representatives  to  pre- 
vent or  overcome  this  tendency  are:  sending  designers  to 
Europe,  keeping  their  surroundings  as  artistic  as  possible, 
encouraging  them  to  study,  and  giving  them  credit  for  their 
work.  One  firm  states  that  satisfactory  results  have  been 
gained  by  a  scheme  of  competitions  and  prizes. 

Manufacturers  are  earnestly  endeavoring  to  obtain  for  this 
industry  the  recognition  of  the  public  as  to  the  importance 
of  the  art  product  produced. 

The  salaries  of  draftsmen   are  re- 

Remuneration  of      ported  to  range  from  $i  ,8cx)  to  $2,500 

Designers  per  year  and  of  designers  from  $1 ,800 

to  $7,000.  There  would  seem  to  be  no 

general  scheme  of  salary  progression,  but  all  salaries  are  said 

to  be  based  upon  the  value  of  the  designer  to  the  firm. 

The  number  of  designers  needed  is 

Demand  not  large  but  the  increasing  standards 

FOR  Designers         of  the  industry  are  constantly  calling 

for  more   broadly   and    thoroughly 

equipped  persons.  The  same  difficulty  in  finding  the  right  kind 

of  young  persons  to  train  for  designing  work  is  reported  in  this 

industry  as  in  the  case  of  furniture  and  other  trades.  Few 

young  persons  seem  well  fitted  for  the  work,  and  the  moderate 

pay  available  for  beginners  as  compared  to  many  other  lines 

in  trade  and  business  undoubtedly  acts  as  a  deterrent. 

The  main   weakness   found   in   the 
Training  training  of  designers  is  stated  to  be 

Recommended  by      their  inability  to  adapt  what  they 
Establishment        have  learned  in  school  to  commercial 
Representatives      requirements.  Personal  qualities  em- 
phasized as  important  in  the  designer 


>%<. 


Hanging  electrolier  with  ornamental  metal  work 
reduced  to  small  proportions 


LIGHTING  FIXTURES  193 

are  creative  imagination  and  feeling  for  line,  proportion  and 
color.  It  is  stated  that  the  more  cultural  education  the  de- 
signer possesses,  the  better  designer  he  is  liable  to  make.  All 
establishment  representatives  believe  that  young  persons 
should  have  at  least  a  high-school  education  before  beginning 
their  art  training. 

Subjects  emphasized  in  connection  with  art-school  training 
are:  facility  in  free-hand  and  instrumental  drawing;  knowl- 
edge of  historic  styles;  understanding  of  the  technical  pro- 
cesses of  casting,  forging,  chasing  and  of  the  qualities  of 
different  metals.  A  number  of  representatives  feel  that  much 
can  be  added  to  the  value  of  the  designer  by  affording  him 
experience  as  a  salesman  with  the  resultant  contact  with 
clients.  One  employer  brought  forward  the  question  as  to 
the  possibilities  of  women  as  designers  in  this  field  and  made 
the  point  that  the  problem  of  lighting  is  very  closely  related 
to  home  furnishing  and  that  women  are  often  quicker  to 
see  possible  motives  for  lighting  effects  than  men. 

All  of  the  representatives  report  that  evening  classes  can 
be  of  help  in  the  problem  of  training  designers  already  in  the 
trade  by  affording  them  opportunities  to  perfect  themselves 
in  drawing  and  modeling  and  by  assisting  them  in  problems 
in  advance  of  their  usual  work. 

Interviews  emphasized  the  point  that 
Training  designers  cannot  depend  solely  upon 

Recommended  by       the  design  of  lighting  fixtures  for  a 
Designers  living  but  must  be  prepared  in  related 

lines  of  metal  or  other  work.  The 
course  of  training  for  the  designer  in  this  field  should,  conse- 
quently, be  part  of  a  course  of  broader  scope. 

It  is  thought  that  the  length  of  the  school  course  preferably 
should  be  three  years  and  not  less  than  two.  A  general  art 
training  is  recommended  to  come  first,  together  with  the 
ordinary  processes  of  free-hand  and  mechanical  drawing. 
Considerable  attention  to  historic  ornament  is  imperative  as 
design  practice  at  present  follows  that  of  interior  decoration, 
in  which  the  historic  periods  dominate.  Architectural  design 


194  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

is  invaluable  as  itmakes  clear  the  principles  of  structural  design 
as  no  other  study  can  and  acts  to  coordinate  the  other  studies. 

All  of  the  establishment  representa- 
MusEUM  tives  express  the  opinion  that  muse- 

CoLLECTioNs  um  collcctions  should  be  made  up  of 

original  specimens  so  far  as  possible 
but  that  reproductions  may  be  made  of  much  value.  All  feel 
that  selected  present-day  products  should  be  exhibited  in 
order  to  show  the  public  what  is  being  done  and  also  to  stimu- 
late manufacturers  and  designers.  It  is  felt  that  the  Metro- 
politan Museum  of  Art  has  done  much  in  meeting  the  needs 
of  this  trade  but  that  more  could  be  done.  All  believe  that 
museums  should  be  open  in  the  evening. 

The  variety  of  production  in  this  field 
Summary  as   represented   by   the   high-grade 

establishments  referred  to  above,  not 
only  opens  up  large  scope  for  the  designer,  but  when  the  fact 
is  taken  into  account  that  the  products  of  these  concerns  must 
meet  the  requirements  of  the  most  fastidious  homes  on  one 
side,  and  the  criticism  of  architects  on  the  other,  it  is  clear 
that  a  very  high  quality  of  design  is  called  for  and  one  for 
which  a  sound  training  is  necessary. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  number  of  high-grade  designers 
needed  is  hardly  sufficient  to  support  a  distinct  three  or  four- 
year  course  in  a  day-time  school,  even  in  New  York  City.  The 
economic  and  other  problems  presented  are  very  similar  to 
those  noted  in  reference  to  the  furniture  trade.  The  quality 
of  designs  in  common  demand  is  very  closely  related  to  period 
decoration  and,  as  in  the  other  case,  the  designer  requires 
something  more  than  a  specialized  training  to  insure  his  future 
prospects.  As  in  the  case  of  furniture  design,  such  a  course 
can  probably  be  maintained  most  practically  in  conjunc- 
tion with  a  course  in  interior  decoration  in  which  the  de- 
sign of  lighting  fixtures  and  decorative  metal  work  for  in- 
teriors is  offered  as  an  elective. 

It  would  seem  clear  that  the  following  recommendations 
should  find  expression  in  such  a  course:  emphasis  should  be 


Two  electric  light  brackets  in 
which  the  ornamental  metal 
work  plays  a  subordinate  part, 
particularly  in  the  right  hand 
example 


LIGHTING  FIXTURES  195 

given  to  free-hand  drawing  and  rendering  in  water-color  to 
develop  facility  in  sketching;  a  study  of  color  harmony  should 
be  included;  attention  should  be  given  to  scale  and  detail 
drawings  for  the  shop;  the  study  of  period  historic  ornament 
as  related  to  wood  and  metal  work  and  particularly  as  to 
historic  forms  of  lighting  fixtures  should  be  given  a  prominent 
place;  the  architectural  styles,  particularly  with  reference  to 
interiors,  should  be  a  basic  element  in  the  course;  instruction 
should  be  comprehended  that  will  give  an  understanding  of 
the  technical  processes  of  casting,  forging  and  chasing,  and 
familiarity  with  qualities  of  metals  used  for  fixtures  and  inte- 
rior decoration;  the  constructive  requirements  entailed  by 
electric  wiring  should  be  made  clear  and  the  principles  of 
economic  production  should  be  emphasized. 

Here,  as  in  the  case  of  furniture  design,  it  is  evidently  very 
desirable  that  the  limited  opportunities  presented  by  day- 
school  training  should  be  supplemented  by  instruction  in 
evening  classes.  Courses  in  interior  decoration  giving  special 
attention  to  the  subject  of  lighting  fixtures  and  metal  work, 
if  directed  by  persons  of  real  practical  and  artistic  ability, 
would  be  of  much  service  to  draftsmen  in  the  design  rooms  of 
fixture  establishments.  With  their  knowledge  of  the  processes 
of  production  such  young  men  should  be  able  to  gain  much 
through  the  study  of  design  and  decorative  periods  afford- 
ed in  such  classes. 

As  in  the  case  of  certain  other  trades,  it  would  seem  very 
desirable  that  the  sales  force  in  this  industry  should  receive 
the  benefit  of  instruction  in  matters  that  will  make  them  more 
fully  appreciate  the  quality  of  the  designs  created  by  the 
establishment  both  from  the  constructive  and  the  artistic 
standpoint.  Such  material  could  be  given  in  the  form  of  illus- 
trated lectures  much  in  the  way  referred  to  in  the  report  on 
carpets  and  rugs.  The  subject  matter  might  well  include  the 
properties  of  the  various  materials  used  in  fixtures  and  the 
processes  employed  in  their  production  as  well  as  information 
in  regard  to  period  design  as  related  to  interior  decoration 
and  particularly  to  lighting  fixtures  and  decorative  metal  work. 


isiF^m:si3Pm^.  sm^^sms^^m. 


.r-.^f%^^  •'VbiQr 


Ceiling  fixtures  in  which  the  structure  is  practically  reduced  to  the 
two  essential  elements:  electric  light  bulbs  and  frosted  glass 


ORNAMENTAL  BUILDERS'  HARDWARE 

Thirty  or  forty  years  ago  in  this  country  it  was  the  univer- 
sal custom  to  leave  the  selection  of  the  hardware  for  a  house 
to  the  builder,  who  purchased  according  to  the  sum  of  money 
at  his  disposal.  Hardware  at  that  time  was  made  for  utility 
only  and  was  as  inconspicuous  as  possible.  Later  on  the  prac- 
tice of  using  a  metal  plate  to  cover  the  keyhole  and  knob 
shank  became  more  common,  and  door  hardware  became  in 
this  way  more  important  as  an  element  of  decoration.  The 
selection  of  hardware  for  a  new  house  then  became  a  subject 
for  an  appointed  visit  on  the  part  of  the  owner  and  his  archi- 
tect to  a  hardware  store,  where  the  most  suitable  selection 
was  made  within  the  sum  specified  in  the  builder's  contract. 
Thus  the  place  occupied  by  hardware  as  an  element  in  build- 
ing furnishings  gradually  grew  to  be  of  more  importance, 
sometimes  reaching  the  point  of  requiring  a  separate  contract. 

An  increasing  interest  in  interior  decoration  and  furnishing 
helped  materially  to  bring  about  a  demand  from  architects 
for  hardware  possessing  some  degree  of  harmony  with  their 
work.  Well-designed  hardware  became  such  a  matter  of  de- 
mand that  in  the  late  eighties  and  the  nineties  of  the  last 
century  certain  large  manufacturers  sought  the  services  of 
expert  designers  in  producing  what  is  commonly  called  "  period 
hardware."  These  undertakings  were  in  particularly  notable 
cases  prosecuted  with  great  thoroughness  and  no  expense  was 
spared  to  achieve  a  thoroughly  artistic  result.  Occasionally 
designs  made  by  architects  for  the  hardware  of  buildings 
they  were  erecting  were  also  adopted  by  manufacturers  as 
stock  patterns. 

It  has  been  a  common  practice  in  the  hardware  business  for 
about  twenty  years  to  keep  up  a  regular  stock  of  such  "period 
hardware."  This  practice,  however,  has  apparently  not  proven 
consistent  with  the  methods  and  demands  of  quantity  produc- 
tion. To  maintain  such  a  stock  has  entailed  great  expense, 
which  has  been  found  after  some  years  of  experience  not  to  be 
warranted  by  the  demand.  Naturally  some  patterns  were 


198  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

used  frequently  while  others  were  seldom  called  for.  But  the 
sales  of  the  popular  patterns  have  not  been  sufficient  to  pay 
for  losses  entailed  by  the  others.  And,  furthermore,  it  fre- 
quently occurred  that  while  many  of  the  designs  were  in 
harmony  with  the  styles  in  vogue,  architects  would  require 
changes  in  the  details  and  thus  cost  was  added  to  an  already 
expensive  article. 

This  outcome  would  seem  to  indicate  that  it  is  extremely 
doubtful  whether  our  large  manufacturing  concerns  can  be 
counted  on  in  the  future  to  supply  the  market  with  a  large 
variety  of  finely  designed  hardware.  The  policy  in  vogue  at 
present  is  in  the  opposite  direction,  namely,  to  reduce  the 
forms  to  a  comparatively  few  standardized  types  of  simple 
design  and  to  rely  upon  the  architect  when  special  patterns 
are  needed. 

Another  change  which  is  significant  in  regard  to  this  new 
policy  is  illustrated  by  the  fact  that  some  of  the  large  com- 
panies have  given  up  their  showrooms  and  sales  force  and  are 
dealing  with  the  trade  only  through  jobbers  and  retailers. 

Under  such  conditions  the  design  staffs  of  large  concerns 
are  limited  to  one  or  two  draftsmen  whose  work  is  confined  to 
such  mechanical  adjustments  as  may  be  necessitated  by  the 
practical  requirements  of  large  orders.  In  the  case  of  special 
orders  the  draftsman  may  act  as  a  designer,  but  even  in  such 
cases  it  is  more  than  likely  that  the  design  will  be  furnished 
to  the  company  and  the  draftsman's  task  will  be  simply  to 
bring  the  design  into  practical  form  for  the  factory. 

There  are,  however,  a  few  firms  manufacturing  builders' 
hardware  outside  of  the  very  large  organizations  that  are 
well  organized  for  dealing  with  special  work.  It  seems  quite 
likely  that  the  business  of  these  concerns  along  artistic  lines 
will  increase.  Another  tendency  to  be  noted  is  that  some  of 
the  more  important  church  and  other  elaborate  hardware  is 
being  executed  by  concerns  producing  decorative  metal  work. 

It  is  apparently  only  in  these  two  kinds  of  establishments 
that  design  in  building  hardware  will  find  any  large  opportu- 
nity and  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  this  field,  even  at  its 


ORNAMENTAL  BUILDERS'  HARDWARE         199 

fullest  development  can  employ  but  a  few  designers.  Prepara- 
tion for  this  field  may  well  be  gained  through  courses  in  art 
metal  work  as  suggested  in  connection  with  the  study  of 
lighting  fixtures. 


WALL  PAPER 

Wall  paper  as  a  decorative  covering  for  walls  has  been  in 
use  little  more  than  two  centuries.  Previous  to  this  time,  and 
after  the  earlier  practice  of  paneling,  walls  in  the  homes  of  the 
rich  were  covered  in  whole  or  in  part  with  painted  decorations, 
tapestries,  stenciled  and  printed  linens,  brocades  and  velvets 
or  stamped  leather.  Wall  papers  were  devised  to  furnish  an 
inexpensive  means  of  decorating  the  walls  of  less  wealthy 
homes.  They  were  at  first  strongly  imitative  in  character, 
reproducing  the  patterns  of  fabrics  or  leathers  or  the  effect 
of  decorative  painting. 

The  first  wall  papers  printed  in  small  squares  from  wooden 
blocks  were  printed  by  Papillon,  of  Paris,  who  invented  the 
process  in  1688.  These  squares  were  pasted  together  to  form 
sizable  rolls  for  the  paper  hanger's  use.  In  1829  strips  nine 
metres  long  were  printed  from  rolls  operated  by  hand.  In  1 852 
the  modern  power-roller  printing  machine  was  developed. 

At  the  present  time  there  are  two  types  of  mills:  one  in  which 
the  standards  include  care  in  all  the  processes  of  designing, 
coloring  and  printing,  and  where  superior  artistic  value  is  aimed 
at  in  the  finished  product,  and  the  other  where  speed  and 
maximum  production  are  all  important.  In  the  former  eight 
miles  a  day  is  often  the  rate  of  printing  considered  neces- 
sary to  assure  the  results  desired,  whilst  in  the  other  mills, 
where  volume  output  is  the  essential  feature,  machines  are 
often  run  ata  speedwhichprintseighteenortwentymilesaday. 

Hand  block  printing,  although  accomplished  with  blocks 
of  small  area,  allows  the  ready  multiplication  of  blocks  with 
different  cuttings  and  the  consequent  opportunity  of  bringing 
together  the  printings  in  large  compositions.  In  modern  roller 
printing,  on  the  other  hand,  the  pattern  is  necessarily  limited 
in  length  to  the  circumference  of  the  roll  and  repeats  itself 
in  such  units  upon  the  strip.  A  certain  amount  of  high-grade 
block  printing  is  done  todaybyafewAmericanfirms.The  high 
cost  of  such  work  naturally  limits  production  to  special  effects 
and  relatively  expensive  papers. 


202  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

Printing  by  hand  blocks  also  permits  of  stronger  color  effects 
inasmuch  as  the  entire  set  is  printed  from  each  block  at  a 
time  and  the  paper  allowed  to  dry  before  another  block  is 
used,  whereas  in  cylinder  printing  the  colors  are  necessarily 
mixed  thin  to  allow  of  the  rapid  drying  required  for  economic 
operation  of  the  machine.  Furthermore,  machine  printing  is 
practically  limited  to  twelve  rollers  or  colors,  whereas  hand 
block  printing  has  no  mechanical  restrictions  as  to  the  num- 
ber of  colors  that  may  be  employed. 

In  the  early  period  of  wall-paper  making  the  introduction 
of  the  new  material  depended  upon  a  strong  appeal  through 
its  artistic  quality.  The  market  was  confined  to  compara- 
tively well-to-do  persons  living  in  fine  homes  to  whom  a 
method  of  wall  covering  less  expensive  than  the  earlier  meth- 
ods would  appeal,  but  whose  aesthetic  standards  were  based 
on  the  older  practices.  This  class  constituted  a  discriminating 
group  of  buyers  from  the  artistic  standpoint,  and  one  that 
would  be  satisfied  only  with  fine  designs,  viewed  by  the 
standards  of  the  day. 

During  this  early  period  the  art  of  engraving  and  color 
printing  reached  a  high  degree  of  development,  particularly 
in  France,  where  it  was  encouraged  to  a  large  extent  by  the 
French  court  and  nobility.  It  was  the  French  manufacturer, 
Revillon,  who,  in  1784,  had  bestowed  upon  him  by  ILouis 
XVI  the  honor  of  royal  patronage,  which  gave  him  the 
right  to  add  the  royal  insignia  of  crown  and  fleur-de-lis  to  his 
trade-mark.  This  encouragement  is  responsible  largely  for 
the  fine  quality  of  these  early  wall  papers  which  were  often 
designed  by  artists  of  distinction.  While  many  of  these  early 
papers  were  printed  in  a  variety  of  strong  colors,  others  were 
printed  in  grisaille,  producing  a  quiet,  soft-toned  effect. 

With  the  introduction  of  roller  printing,  wall  paper  ceased 
to  be  an  article  of  luxury  and  became  a  matter  of  common  use. 
Today  wall  paper  is  regarded  almost  as  a  universal  necessity 
for  covering  the  walls  of  homes.  According  to  the  United 
States  Census  of  1 914  the  product  represented  a  total  value  of 
$15,887,1 23,  the  value  added  by  manufacture  being  $7,3  50,? 


WALL  PAPER  203 

The  demand  for  new  designs  in  wall 

Nature  of  the         papers  comes  to  the  manufacturers 

Demand  for  through  salesmen,  jobbers,  and  cus- 

Designs  tomers.  Up  to  fifteen  years  ago  it  was 

the  general  custom  to  employ  sales- 
men to  sell  to  the  retail  trade.  Since  then  the  jobbers  have 
become  more  and  more  the  important  factor  in  distribution. 
They  purchase  from  the  manufacturer  and  distribute  by 
means  of  sample  books  to  the  retail  trade  throughout  the 
country.  These  sample  books,  which  are  generally  eighteen 
by  eighteen  inches  in  size,  are  often  claimed  by  designers  to 
exert  a  restraining  influence  in  the  matter  of  new  designs, 
because  their  limited  size  prevents  the  effect  of  all  but  small 
pattern  papers  from  being  appreciated.  This  restriction  is 
said  to  be  so  considerable  that  many  manufacturers  develop 
their  designs  not  on  the  basis  of  their  effect  upon  the  wall  but 
on  how  they  are  going  to  look  in  the  sample  book.  The  jobber 
has  naturally  come  to  exert  considerable  influence  over  the 
quality  of  the  manufacturers'  designs.  He  informs  the  manu- 
facturer at  the  end  of  each  season  which  of  the  papers  were 
the  best  sellers  and  these  designs  are  generally  repeated  for 
the  next  season.  In  many  cases  also  the  jobber  anticipates 
and  suggests  the  colorings  for  the  coming  season. 

In  centers  like  New  York  City  the  large  stores  kept  by 
jobbers  have  become  to  a  large  extent  the  accepted  medium 
through  which  the  American  public  find  it  most  convenient 
to  examine  and  purchase  wall  papers.  The  mail-order  houses 
also  sell  large  quantities  of  wall  papers  which  are  put  out  in 
sample  books  about  six  by  nine  inches,  through  which  little 
idea  of  the  design  except  color  can  be  gained. 

Interviews  were  obtained  from  eight- 

Where  Designs  Are    een  establishments,  of  which  four  do 

Obtained  not   manufacture   wall   papers   but 

are  merely  distributors.  One  of  these 
distributors  handles  no  domestic  papers,  importing  very  high- 
grade  wall  papers  from  Europe. 

In  spite  of  the  fact  that  nine  of  the  firms  studied  employ 


204  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

designers,  and  two  employ  colorists,  all  of  the  establishment 
representatives  state  that  designs  are  purchased  outside  the 
establishment.  One  firm  which  employs  two  designers  states 
that  very  few  of  the  designs  purchased  outside  are  satisfac- 
tory for  use  and  that  it  is  necessary  to  modify  the  greater  num- 
ber to  meet  production  requirements.  Another  firm,  which 
employs  four  designers,  purchases  some  designs  outside,  but 
the  representative  states  that  in  this  practice  no  guarantee 
exists  that  other  firms  have  not  seen  the  design.  In  the  ma- 
jority of  cases  it  was  reported  that  one  hundred  or  more  designs 
are  purchased  each  year.  It  seems  to  be  the  practice  for  es- 
tablishment representatives  to  pay  for  designs  what  they 
consider  the  designs  may  be  worth  to  the  establishment. 
One  representative  reports  that  as  high  as  $350  has  been 
paid  for  a  design;  the  average  price,  however,  would  seem 
to  range  from  $10  to  I75. 

Most  producing  firms  buy  designs  from  design  studios. 
Occasionally  they  purchase  from  free-lance  designers  for  the 
sake  of  the  ideas  suggested.  As  the  free-lance  designers  do  not 
generally  meet  trade  requirements  satisfactorily,  these  de- 
signs are  modified  by  the  designer  at  the  factory,  who  is  some- 
times engaged  mainly  to  do  this  particular  kind  of  work.  With 
one  exception  establishment  representatives  agree  that  the 
existence  of  designers  outside  the  establishments  is  beneficial 
to  the  trade. 

In  Europe  the  reputation  of  an  artist  is  often  an  influence 
in  marketing  papers  carrying  his  designs.  The  chief  concern 
of  the  American  manufacturer,  on  the  other  hand,  with  a  few 
exceptions,  is  apparently  to  prevent  his  competitors  from 
locating  the  source  of  his  designs,  and  he  rarely  associates  the 
name  of  the  designer  with  the  finished  product. 

Only  five  of  the  wall  paper  manufacturers  interviewed  re- 
port that  they  import  designs  from  Europe  at  present.  Eight 
firms  state  that  before  the  war  from  five  to  twenty-five  per 
cent,  of  the  designs  used  were  purchased  in  Europe,  but  that 
these  all  had  to  be  modified  to  conform  with  American  taste. 
The  representative  of  one  of  these  firms  states  that  when 


WALL  PAPER  205 

conditions  are  more  satisfactory  he  will  again  import  from 
five  to  ten  per  cent,  of  his  designs  from  Europe  on  account 
of  the  ideas  presented. 

Three  of  the  jobbers  mentioned  above  consider  European 
designs  superior  to  those  produced  in  America,  the  fourth 
states  that  although  European  designs  are  more  artistic,  they 
do  not  appeal  in  general  to  the  American  public  unless  they 
are  modified  to  suit  American  tastes. 

Two  establishment  representatives  consider  American  de- 
signs superior  to  those  made  in  Europe,  four  consider  Euro- 
pean designs  superior,  one  believes  this  applies  only  to  the 
best  European  designs;  two  state  that  European  designs  are 
superior  artistically  but  not  commercially,  and  one  states 
that  European  designs  are  not  superior,  but  different  in 
quality.  Four  representatives  venture  no  opinion. 

In  the  wall  paper  industry  usually 
How  New  Designs       the  head  of  the  firm  or  the  sampling 
Are  Defined  manager  takes  the  place  of  the  styler 

in  the  textile  industry  and  deter- 
mines the  character  of  the  designs  to  be  developed  by  the  de- 
signers in  the  establishment  or  selects  those  which  are  pur- 
chased outside.  In  one  firm  the  style  is  evolved  by  the  sales 
manager  in  conjunction  with  the  general  force.  In  each  case 
the  artistic  quality  of  the  product  was  found  to  correspond 
closely  with  the  character  of  the  person  who  exercises  this 
responsibility.  Wherever  fine  papers  were  produced,  a  man 
of  superior  artistic  taste  was  found  as  the  super-designer. 
Inspiration  for  new  ideas  is  gained  from  every  conceivable 
source — ^woven  and  printed  textiles,  jewelry,  books,  imported 
papers. 

Information  regarding  the  training  of  persons  who  define 
the  styles  was  obtained  in  the  case  of  eight  firms.  Except  in 
the  case  of  one  individual  who  was  at  one  time  a  designer, 
these  persons  were  developed  through  practical  experience 
in  the  business,  a  few  being  developed  from  the  sales  force. 
One  was  formerly  a  styler  in  the  woolen  industry  in  Austria. 
He  feels  that  the  experience  gained  in  this  industry  has  proved 


2o6  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

of  value  in  his  work  in  the  wall  paper  business,  as  one  of  his 
principal  successes  has  been  the  imitation  of  fabrics. 

The  work  of  designers  in  the  estab- 
WoRK  OF  Designers     lishments  employing  but  one  or  two 

designers  is  mainly  limited  to  adapt- 
ing designs  purchased  outside  to  meet  the  technical  require- 
ments of  production  processes  as  well  as  the  demands  of  the 
market.  The  designer's  instinct  and  effort  to  produce  original 
designs  is  consequently  given  meagre  opportunity  for  expres- 
sion. In  one  firm  where  two  designers  are  employed  the  one 
originates  and  the  other  adapts  styles  and  designs  to  meet 
the  demands  of  the  American  market  and  the  technical  re- 
quirements of  production.  Comparatively  few  of  the  designers 
in  the  wall  paper  industry  are  foreign-born  or  of  foreign  de- 
scent. 

Public  designers  on  the  whole  eke  out  a  precarious  liveli- 
hood mainly  through  orders  for  which  the  motives  are  gen- 
erally defined  and  which  represent  nearly  always  an  adapta- 
tion either  of  period  work  or  some  decorative  sample. 

No  designers  were  employed  by  three 

Training  of  of  the  fourteen  firms  manufacturing 

Designers  wall   paper.   Of  eleven   firms,   two 

employ  one  colorist  each  and  thirteen 

designers  are  employed  by  the  nine  remaining  establishments. 

No  information  was  obtained  regarding  the  training  of  the 

colorists.  Eleven  of  the  designers  were  trained  in  commercial 

practice  in  the  United  States  and  two  were  trained  in  England. 

One  of  the  designers  trained  in  England  attended  an  evening 

art  school  and  one  of  the  American  designers  supplemented 

his  commercial  experience  in  the  same  way.  The  criticism  is 

made  by  the  designer  who  attended  the  evening  school  in  the 

United  States  that  the  instructor  lacked  technical  knowledge. 

Information  was  obtained  regarding  the  training  of  eight 

studio  heads  specializing  in  wall  paper  design.  Four  were 

trained  wholly  in  the  United  States;  three  attending  day  art 

schools,  and  one  receiving  his  training  in  commercial  practice 

supplemented  by  evening  art  school  instruction.  Two  other 


WALL  PAPER  207 

designers  were  trained  in  day  art  schools  in  Europe.  One 
attended  evening  art  schools  in  the  United  States  before 
studying  in  a  day  art  school  in  Paris,  and  one  attended  a  day 
art  school  in  Paris  before  studying  in  an  evening  art  school  in 
the  United  States. 

Sixty-two  designers  are  employed  in  these  studios.  Fifty- 
seven  were  trained  wholly  in  the  United  States  and  five  in 
Europe.  Only  one  of  the  designers  trained  in  the  United 
States  attended  a  day  art  school,  the  others  were  all  trained 
in  commercial  practice.  Of  the  latter,  fifty-one  attended  eve- 
ning art  schools.  Of  the  five  designers  trained  in  Europe  two 
attended  day  art  schools  and  three  were  trained  entirely  in 
commercial  practice. 

Records  were  obtained  from  four  free-lance  designers.  One 
of  these  was  trained  in  commercial  practice  in  the  United 
States  and  in  an  evening  art  school.  One  was  trained  in  an  art 
school  in  Paris  and  later  attended  evening  classes  in  an  art 
school  in  the  United  States.  Two  others  were  trained  wholly 
in  Europe,  one  in  technical  schools  in  Basel,  Munich  and 
Liverpool  and  in  private  studios,  and  the  other  in  commercial 
practice  and  in  an  evening  art  school. 

Although  establishment  representatives  state  that  the 
work  of  a  designer  employed  at  a  fixed  salary  becomes  monot- 
onous, no  definite  measures  are  reported  to  stimulate  the 
designer  to  further  and  constant  effort  in  his  work.  In  one 
case,  however,  it  was  reported  that  the  name  of  the  designer 
is  printed  on  the  selvage  of  the  paper  as  a  recognition  of  good 
work  and  that  this  unquestionably  has  acted  as  a  stimulus. 
Free-lance  designers  and  heads  of  design  studios  report  that 
much  of  their  inspiration  comes  from  traveling  and  visits  to 
museums. 

Salaries  reported  by  establishment 

Remuneration  of      representatives  range  from  $2,500  per 
Designers  year  to  $4,000.  The  maximum  report- 

ed is  $5,000  per  year.  Free-lance 
designers  and  studio  heads  report  that  they  receive  from  $45 
to  $84  for  a  design. 


2o8  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

There  would  seem  to  be  no  special 

Demand  for  demand  for  more  designers  at  the 

Designers  present  time.  It  is,  however,  pointed 

out  by  the  head  of  one  studio  that 

the  only  way  for  manufacturers  to  increase  their  trade  is  to 

offer  better  designs  and  in  order  to  do  this  more  highly  skilled 

designers  are  needed. 

It  is  felt  that  present  art  schools  do  not 
Training  afford  entirely  satisfactory  training 

Recommended  by       for   wall  paper   designers.    Besides 
Establishment         lacking  imagination  and  originality, 
Representatives       school-trained  designers  are  without 
knowledge  as  to  the  requirements  of 
production.  A  feeling  for  line  and  for  color  are  stated  as  im- 
portant qualities  which  should  be  developed  by  school  work. 
One  manufacturer  strongly  emphasizes  the  opinion  that  a 
designer  should  have  architectural  training  and  should  also 
take  a  complete  course  in  interior  decoration.  Architectural 
training,  he  states,  is  needed  to  develop  in  the  designer  a  sense 
of  proportion  which  is  usually  sadly  lacking,  and  the  study  of 
interior  decoration   is   necessary    inasmuch  as  wall  paper, 
being  the  background  of  the  entire  room  effect,  must  harmo- 
nize with  the  furniture  and  other  accessories. 

Teachers  in  the  schools  should  be  practical  designers  of 
high  ability  who  understand  the  requirements  of  production 
processes  as  well  as  the  demands  of  the  market.  Nine  estab- 
lishment representatives  state  that  they  believe  that  work 
illustrative  of  production  processes  should  be  taught  in  the 
schools.  With  but  two  exceptions  representatives  state  that 
they  believe  that  students  should  make  designs  for  the  market 
while  in  school,  although  a  few  of  them  express  a  doubt  that 
manufacturers  will  buy  students'  designs,  inasmuch  as  they 
are  not  likely  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  trade. 

While  some  representatives  believe  that  it  might  be  helpful 
to  the  students  to  spend  some  time  working  in  commercial 
establishments  as  part  of  their  training,  it  is  felt  that  this 
would  be  difficult  to  carry  into  effect  and  that  it  might  per- 


WALL  PAPER  209 

haps  be  more  feasible  for  students  to  serve  an  apprenticeship 
in  a  designer's  studio. 

Three  designers  employed  in  estab- 
Training  lishments  expressed  views  as  to  the 

Recommended  BY       training  of  wall  paper  designers.  One 
Designers  of  these  believes  that  in  addition  to 

practical  work  in  a  design  studio  a 
student  should  attend  an  evening  school  where  he  can  receive 
instruction  in  period  design.  The  two  others  recommend  that 
the  student  should  first  receive  training  in  an  art  school,  after 
which  he  should  enter  a  successful  design  studio  to  learn  the 
technical  and  commercial  side. 

All  three  designers  believe  that  students  should  make 
designs  for  the  market  if  the  selling  is  handled  by  the  schools. 
It  is  believed  that  the  teacher  should  be  thoroughly  familiar 
with  technical  requirements  and  that  familiarity  with  pro- 
duction processes  should  be  gained  in  the  school. 

Opinions  as  to  training  of  designers  were  expressed  by  six 
heads  of  design  studios.  Four  of  these  recommend  that  stu- 
dents attend  a  day  art  school  and  two  that  the  training  be 
acquired  in  commercial  practice  supplemented  by  evening 
art  school  instruction.  One  believes  that  students  should 
specialize  in  design  at  once  in  the  art  schools.  The  others 
express  the  opinion  that  students  should  first  receive  training 
in  a  general  art  course  before  specializing  in  work  in  design. 
One  of  the  studio  heads  who  recommends  that  students  attend 
evening  school  believes  that  a  foundation  of  art  instruction 
should  be  laid  in  the  public  schools  before  the  student  enters 
commercial  practice.  Only  two  studio  heads  recommend  that 
craft  work  be  included  in  the  art  school  curriculum.  Three 
believe  that  students  should  make  designs  for  the  market 
during  their  training  while  three  others  take  the  opposite 
view. 

In  listing  the  work  that  should  be  emphasized  in  an  art- 
school  training  the  following  are  noted:  thorough  training  in 
free-hand  drawing,  including  drawing  from  nature,  work  in 
color,  conventionalization  and  composition  of  ornament  and 


2IO  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

a  study  of  period  decoration.  The  desirable  length  of  a  school 
term  is  given  as  from  two  to  four  years. 

Four  free-lance  designers  expressed  opinions  as  to  the 
desirable  training  of  wall  paper  designers.  Two  recommend 
that  students  attend  day  art  schools  and  two  recommend  that 
students  acquire  their  school  training  simultaneously  with 
practical  training  in  a  design  studio  or  commercial  establish- 
ment. The  work  to  be  emphasized  in  the  school  training  is 
given  as  follows:  freehand  drawing  from  cast,  life, and  nature, 
and  in  particular  from  plant  forms;  period  work  and  conven- 
tionalization. Three  believe  that  general  art  instruction  should 
precede  specialized  work  in  design.  All  believe  that  students 
should  make  designs  for  the  market  during  the  latter  part  of 
the  school  course.  From  three  to  five  years  is  given  as  the 
desirable  length  of  such  a  course. 

One  representative  considers  museum 

Museum  collections  useful  only  in  familiariz- 

CoLLECTiONS  ing  designers  with  fine  examples  of 

art  embodying  the  element  of  beauty 
in  the  highest  sense.  With  this  exception,  the  representatives 
interviewed  state  that  museum  collections  of  historic  and 
modern  examples  of  wall  paper  would  be  of  much  value  in 
forwarding  the  training  of  designers  for  this  industry.  The 
opinion  is  uniformly  expressed  that  no  existing  museum  in 
New  York  City  fulfills  the  need  of  the  designers  in  this  field, 
although  one  representative  states  that  the  collections  of  the 
Metropolitan  Museum  are  of  much  service. 

The  wall  paper  industry  at  the  pres- 
SuMMARY  ent  time  presents  two  rather  distinct 

situations  as  to  quality.  Considered 
as  a  whole  the  average  product  cannot  lay  claim  to  high 
standards  of  design  or  color.  On  the  other  hand,  a  valiant 
attempt  has  been  made  by  several  leaders  in  the  industry 
during  the  last  ten  years  to  improve  this  situation  with  the 
result  that  a  few  establishments  are  today  placing  on  the 
market  papers  that  in  appropriateness  of  design  and  color 
rival  any  heretofore  produced  and  which,  furthermore,  are 


WALL  PAPER  211 

much  better  adapted  to  the  requirements  of  the  present-day 
American  home  than  any  earlier  productions.  It  is  upon  the 
efforts  of  these  manufacturers  that  the  hope  of  better  wall 
papers  in  this  country  would  seem  largely  to  rest. 

The  universal  use  of  wall  paper  accounts  for  the  fact  that 
the  quality  of  design  in  much  of  the  manufactured  product 
has  deteriorated  to  the  mediocre  and  the  commonplace. 
Starting  as  a  decoration  for  homes  presided  over  by  people  of 
discriminating  and  superior  taste,  wall  paper  is  now  regarded 
as  much  from  the  standpoint  of  simple  utility  as  for  its 
decorative  value  and  is  used  for  all  kinds  of  rooms  in  which 
the  dwellers  represent  an  almost  infinite  variety  of  taste  as 
well  as  purchasing  capacity.  With  the  great  variety  of  condi- 
tions that  now  have  to  be  met  it  is  little  wonder  that  many 
manufacturers  find  it  possible  to  market  a  tremendous  amount 
of  material  without  giving  great  consideration  to  artistic 
quality. 

There  are  many  considerations  that  bear  on  the  present 
situation.  Wall  papers  are  commonly  selected  with  little 
appreciation  of  their  aesthetic  value  in  the  total  room  effect. 
We  have  developed  only  to  a  very  slight  extent  what  may  be 
called  "room  consciousness" — very  little  feeling  as  to  the 
relation  of  different  objects  in  a  room  towards  a  satisfying 
whole.  The  American  tendency  to  put  all  sorts  of  pictures, 
photographic  or  otherwise,  and  any  kind  of  knick-knacks  on 
the  walls  makes  the  matter  of  pattern  background  seem  of 
little  consequence  and  any  kind  of  harmony  impossible. 
Furthermore,  we  are  inclined  to  play  safe  in  furnishing  the 
home,  avoiding  strong  colors  and  vigorous  forms  and  are 
satisfied  if  the  results  are  respectable  rather  than  interesting. 
Another  fact,  marked  in  recent  years,  is  the  tendency  of 
decorators  and  home  makers  aiming  at  particular  effects  to 
develop  color  schemes  for  the  walls  of  their  rooms  in  connec- 
tion with  the  hangings  and  floor  coverings  and  other  decora- 
tive material  and  to  use  plain  wall  treatments  for  this  purpose. 

Another  factor  in  discouraging  the  use  of  really  fine  wall 
papers,  specially  fitted  for  particular  rooms,  is  the  widespread 


212  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

lack  of  skill  and  taste  among  paper  hangers  in  some  of  our 
large  cities.  Fifty  years  ago  our  paper  hangers  were  largely 
either  native  Americans  or  well  trained  men  from  France, 
Germany  and  England.  Today  they  are  as  a  class  deficient 
in  education  and  in  training  as  craftsmen  and  are  unwilling 
or  unable  to  handle  properly  the  finer  qualities  of  paper  re- 
quiring a  certain  amount  of  forethought  and  planning  as  well 
as  manual  dexterity. 

In  contrast  with  these  tendencies  there  remains  the  fact 
that  wall  paper  represents,  at  least  expense,  perhaps,  the  most 
important  decorative  opportunity  in  the  average  American 
home.  It  presents  the  richest  chance  for  the  introduction  of 
color  and  from  the  nature  of  its  position  and  area  may  readily 
contribute  more  than  any  other  element  to  the  aesthetic 
quality  of  a  room. 

If  we  are  to  utilize  this  material  for  the  making  of  better 
rooms,  we  must  develop  appreciation  of  the  kind  of  wall  treat- 
ment that  is  most  suitable  for  a  particular  situation;  i.  e.,  some 
sense  of  appropriateness  in  relation  to  the  special  conditions 
presented.  This  would  mean  that  consideration  should  be  had 
for  a  number  of  things:  for  the  quality  of  the  house,  if  it  is  a 
house,  or  of  the  apartment  if  it  is  an  apartment,  in  which  the 
rooms  are  found;  for  the  location,  whether  the  building  is  in 
the  city  with  its  closely  built  blocks  or  in  the  country  with 
open  spaces  about;  for  the  character  of  the  room,  whether  it 
is  a  living  room,  dining  room,  or  sleeping  room;  for  the  size, 
whether  it  is  small  or  large;  for  the  quality  of  light,  whether 
it  is  an  inside  or  outside  room,  whether  it  has  southern  expos- 
ure or  a  north  light.  All  these  considerations  and  more  ought 
in  some  way  to  be  brought  into  consciousness  if  we  are  to  have 
a  consuming  public  buying  wall  papers,  or  arranging  other 
wall  treatments,  that  will  make  for  better  and  more  pleasing 
rooms. 

With  a  problem  of  this  kind  the  only  forces  that  can  ame- 
liorate the  situation  are,  first,  a  more  discriminating  public 
taste  that  recognizes  a  decorative  value  in  fine  wall  papers; 
and,  second,  recognition  on  the  part  of  the  manufacturers 


WALL  PAPER  213 

that  more  artistic  and  more  appropriate  designs  are  worth 
while  as  a  business  investment. 

The  task  of  developing  public  taste  must  be  mainly  that  of 
manufacturer.  To  accomplish  this  task  he  must  not  only  offer 
more  artistic  designs  but  designs  that  are  specially  appro- 
priate for  use  in  American  homes  and  he  must,  furthermore, 
bring  the  public  to  a  fuller  appreciation  of  the  beauty  and 
value  of  these  designs.  When  these  things  are  brought  about 
we  shall  have  better  designs  and  better  wall  papers,  not  before. 

The  problem  of  educating  the  public  taste  in  this  field  is 
not  an  easy  one  and  it  is  a  matter  that  can  be  accomplished 
only  by  slow  degrees.  A  number  of  efforts  have  already  been 
made  in  this  direction  and  out  of  the  experience  gained  there 
seems  liable  to  develop  a  well-matured  system  making  for 
greater  appreciation  of  the  possibilities  of  wall  paper,  both 
on  the  part  of  the  public  and  the  salesmen.  Among  the  methods 
that  seem  to  give  promise  of  considerable  value  are : 

First,  direct  instruction  of  the  public  by  means  of  lectures 
given  by  persons  with  broad  artistic  training  and  sensitive 
appreciation  of  the  qualities  and  appropriateness  of  wall 
paper.  Illustrated  lectures  of  this  kind  delivered  before 
women's  clubs  and  building  trade  expositions  and  in  depart- 
ment stores  can,  in  the  course  of  several  years,  reach  a  large 
number  of  persons. 

Second,  education  of  the  retail  salesman,  that  is  to  say,  the 
salesman  who  comes  in  direct  contact  with  the  consumer. 
Correspondence  courses  have  been  started  in  this  field;  talks 
have  been  given  in  large  centers  to  groups  of  salesmen  and 
the  idea  of  a  short  course  lasting  perhaps  four  or  five  weeks 
and  which  would  present  the  decorative  possibilities  of  wall 
paper,  the  elements  of  salesmanship,  business  English  and 
the  nature  of  the  processes  used  in  producing  wall  paper  has 
been  broached. 

Third,  intelligent  advertising  on  the  part  of  the  trade  as  a 
whole  may  be  expected  to  bring  considerable  educational 
returns.  Such  advertising  may  take  the  form  of  printed 
advertisements  in  papers  and  magazines  suggesting  the  value 


214  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

of  the  possibilities  of  wall  paper  in  a  complete  decorative 
scheme  for  a  room.  It  may  take  the  form  of  pamphlets  to  be 
distributed  to  customers  giving  suggestive  examples  of  period 
styles  and  hints  as  to  the  use  of  papers  appropriate  for  par- 
ticular rooms.  Such  pamphlets,  intended  for  the  consumer, 
have  the  double  value  of  reacting  upon  the  dealer  at  the  same 
time.  Displays  of  paper  arranged  in  connection  with  fabrics 
and  suggestive  pieces  of  furniture  in  skeleton  room  effects  is 
another  form  of  advertising  from  which  profitable  returns 
are  gained. 

Fourth,  in  the  development  of  room  consciousness  and  the 
appropriate  use  of  wall  papers  much  may  be  done  in  the 
high  schools  of  the  country  if,  instead  of  working  upon  de- 
signs for  room  decorations  with  pencil  and  brush  the  emphasis 
is  laid  upon  appropriate  combinations  with  samples  of  real 
materials  and  with  problems  involving  the  consideration  of 
various  types  of  rooms  as  to  function,  size  and  position. 

Fifth,  annual  exhibitions  in  large  cities  of  the  finest  pro- 
ducts of  American  manufacturers  in  centrally  located  halls 
readily  accessible  to  the  residence  districts  would  serve  to 
better  acquaint  the  public  with  fine  productions  in  this  field. 

Sixth,  an  annual  competition  for  various  types  of  wall 
paper  designs  would  be  of  much  value  in  encouraging  talent 
and  in  giving  the  public,  the  designers  and  the  manufacturers 
an  opportunity  for  comparison  of  the  work  of  those  regularly 
engaged  in  wall  paper  design  with  that  of  artists  bringing  to 
it  a  point  of  view  derived  from  practice  in  other  fields.  Such  a 
competition  to  be  efi^ective  should  be  widely  advertised, 
should  be  held  under  the  auspices  of  some  important  organ- 
ization; should  be  judged  by  a  jury  representing  various 
kinds  of  knowledge  and  experience  requisite  in  this  connection 
and  should  offer  prizes  large  enough  to  be  an  inducement  to 
the  various  types  of  designers.* 

The  matter  of  training  designers  for  the  wall  paper  industry 

•  This  suggestion  has  been  so  warmly  received  by  one  wall  paper  manufacturer  that 
he  has  offered  a  prize  of  one  thousand  dollars  for  the  best  design  exhibited  at  such  a 
competition.     He  has  agreed  to  continue  this  gift  annually  for  a  number  of  years. 


WALL  PAPER  215 

is  a  matter  of  secondary  importance.  Many  established  art 
schools  are  well  prepared  to  give  the  instruction  needed  in 
drawing,  color,  design  and  interior  decoration  that  is  needed 
for  such  designers  while  training  in  commercial  studios  and 
through  evening  schools  also  offers  an  effective  method  for 
their  development.  The  all-important  point  is  to  raise  the 
standards  of  the  public  and  the  manufacturer  so  that  better 
designs  may  be  appreciated  and  better  designs  may  be  pro- 
duced. When  this  is  accomplished  a  more  recognized  position 
for  the  designer  will  be  secured  and  the  industry  will  afford 
larger  opportunities  for  designers  of  ability  and  talent. 


CERAMICS 

The  range  of  commercial  ceramic  products  runs  all  the  way 
from  the  once-fired,  unglazed  clay  ware  with  opaque  porous 
body,  hardened  at  a  comparatively  low  heat,  to  true  porce- 
lain made  from  fine  kaolin,  quartz  and  feldspar,  fired  at  an 
intense  heat  and  resulting  in  a  translucent  product.  True  por- 
celain is  not  made  in  America  except  for  chemical  and  elec- 
trical purposes.  Our  decorated  wares  are  double-fired  products 
intermediate  between  the  above  in  hardness  and  translucence. 
Earthenware  like  faience  and  majolica  has  a  porous  body 
covered  with  either  clear  or  colored  glaze.  The  body  is  fired 
first  to  the  required  strength  and  density  and  is  then  covered 
by  the  glaze  which  in  turn  is  fired  but  to  a  lower  degree  of 
temperature.  When  more  intense  fires  are  used,  with  some 
modifications  in  proportion  of  materials,  the  ware  becomes 
stronger  and  more  dense,  reaching  the  condition  known  as 
vitreous.  Carried  a  step  further  in  temperature  and  in  refine- 
ment of  materials  the  ware  acquires  such  a  degree  of  vitrifi- 
cation as  to  produce  translucence.  This  is  the  product  known 
in  America  as  china  and  used  for  table  ware.  It  is  with  this 
product  that  the  present  study  is  concerned. 

Decorative  effects  in  pottery  may  be  produced  by  the  form 
of  the  object,  by  modeling,  or  by  glazes.  Glaze  decoration 
may  be  achieved  through  solid  colors  or  by  polychrome  orna- 
ment. The  latter  effect  may  be  obtained  either  by  over-glaze, 
as  is  most  common,  or  under-glaze  decoration.  Over-glaze 
decoration  is  made  with  vitrifiable  colors  which  are  fixed  at 
temperatures  below  that  at  which  the  foundation  glaze  is 
matured  and  requires  a  special  firing  for  completion  of  the 
ware.  Under-glaze  decoration  is  limited  to  such  colors  as  will 
withstand  the  heat  of  the  glost  kiln.  Such  colors,  while  limited 
in  number,  are  more  durable  than  those  used  over  the  glaze 
and  are  commonly  used  in  the  decoration  of  hotel  china. 

Table  china  is  decorated  in  large  part  by  the  decalcomania 
transfer  process  invented  by  a  Frenchman,  Masse,  about 


21 8  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

fifty  years  ago.  In  this  process  the  design  is  printed  upon 
special  paper  with  ceramic  colors  instead  of  ink  and  is  then 
transferred  to  the  ware  by  pressure  with  the  fingers.  Trans- 
fers are  produced  by  two  processes,  one  by  printing  from  an 
engraved  copper  plate  and  the  other  by  lithography.  The 
copper-plate  method  is  used  when  only  one  color  is  desired, 
or  at  the  most  two,  and  is  largely  confined  to  printing  on 
biscuit.  Lithography  is  the  usual  method  employed  in  over- 
glaze  decoration.  Lines  and  single  color  bands  on  circular, 
pieces  are  made  by  placing  the  piece  on  a  whirler  and  apply- 
ing colors  with  a  brush.  A  considerable  amount  of  expensive 
table  china  is  decorated  in  whole  or  part  by  hand.  Two  of  the 
china  concerns  studied  maintain  their  own  lithograph  plants 
for  the  production  of  decalcomania.  The  others  either  have 
their  designs  put  into  lithographic  form  by  outside  establish- 
ments or  depend  upon  the  purchase  of  decalcomania  from 
importers  or  studios. 

The  demand  for  close  imitations  of 
Nature  of  the         French  and  English  china  results  in 
Demand  for  these  products  furnishing  the  main 

Designs  supply  of  motives  for  American  de- 

signs. The  demand  for  new  designs 
comes  to  the  establishments  through  various  sources:  through 
salesmen,  through  jobbers,  through  interior  decorators  or 
through  buyers  for  department  stores.  In  addition  to  meeting 
the  demands  brought  to  the  firms  through  these  sources, 
many  firms  make  a  practice  of  adding  a  few  new  patterns 
every  year  on  their  own  initiative.  Most  of  the  hotel  ware  is 
special-order  work.  When  the  demand  is  brought  to  the  firm 
through  salesmen  they  usually  send  in  examples  of  the  "best 
sellers"  from  all  over  the  country,  and  these  examples  of 
chinaware  largely  determine  the  style  to  be  followed  in  pre- 
paring new  designs. 

The  value  of  foreign  decorated  china 
Where  Designs        imported  into  the  United  States  in 
are  Obtained  1920  as  given  by  government  author- 

ities was  16,262,249,  °^  t^^  basis  of 


Service  plates  decorated  by  transfer  and  hand  raised  enamels 


CERAMICS  219 

import  figures.  This  ware  is  said  to  sell  in  the  American  mar- 
ket for  approximately  three  times  the  value  given  in  the 
government  tables.  This  would  mean  a  displacement  value 
of  $18,786,747.  Domestic  production  during  the  same  year 
including  both  white  and  decorated  ware  was  valued  at 
111,341,593. 

There  is  usually  a  modeler  in  the  production  establishment 
who  defines  the  form  of  new  pieces,  giving  special  attention 
to  balance  and  proportion.  In  this  respect  French  china  has 
long  been  preeminent,  and  American  designs  have  to  a  large 
extent  copied  these  models.  Since  the  establishment  of  a 
factory  in  Limoges  by  Charles  Edwin  Haviland,  the  designs 
of  French  china  have  to  a  very  large  extent  catered  to  the 
taste  of  the  American  market.  The  character  of  the  dinner 
sets  made  in  Limoges  for  this  country,  with  their  various 
sizes  of  plates,  are  quite  different  from  the  ware  made  for  the 
French  market. 

Ten  firms  manufacturing  chinaware  and  three  which 
specialize  in  the  production  of  ceramic  decalcomania  were 
surveyed.  Two  of  the  chinaware  firms  employ  no  designers 
for  surface  decoration  and  depend  entirely  upon  the  purchase 
of  decalcomania  for  their  designs.  Nine  designers  are  em- 
ployed in  the  eight  remaining  chinaware  establishments.  Two 
firms  depend  entirely  upon  their  own  designers  to  produce 
designs,  while  two  firms  report  that  designs  are  purchased 
from  free-lance  designers  and  six  that  decalcomania  sheets 
are  purchased  from  outside  sources.  Twenty-five  designers  are 
employed  in  the  three  decalcomania  establishments  studied, 
but  in  the  case  of  two  establishments  the  production  of  cera- 
mic designs  forms  only  a  portion  of  the  work  of  these  designers. 

A  large  part  of  the  decalcomania  used  in  America  before 
the  war  was  imported  from  Europe,  principally  from  Ger- 
many, England  and  France,  and  much  still  comes  from  these 
sources.  One  representative  states  that  practically  all  of  the 
decalcomania  sheets  used  in  his  establishment  are  purchased 
from  English  companies.  A  few  expert  designers  in  Paris  are 
said  to  furnish  a  large  share  of  the  original  motives  for  decal- 


220  ART|IN  INDUSTRY 

comania  production.  Decalcomania  made  abroad  is  produced 
in  specialized  lithographic  establishments  in  which  a  force  of 
designers  is  employed  who  develop  compositions  largely  in- 
spired by  the  work  of  the  above-mentioned  artists. 

Records  were  obtained  from  three  decalcomania  establish- 
ments. The  representatives  of  these  concerns  state  that  they 
purchase  a  considerable  proportion  of  their  designs  from  out- 
side designers.  It  is  stated  that  the  ordinary  price  paid  for 
designs  by  these  establishments  is  $io  but  that  the  prices 
range  from  $5  to  $50  and  even  |icxd.  Most  of  these  designs 
are  said  to  come  from  European  sources,  not  because  the 
representatives  consider  them  superior,  but  because  European 
designs  are  still  considered  superior  by  the  trade.  Seven  rep- 
resentatives of  firms  manufacturing  chinaware  expressed  the 
conviction  that  the  system  of  purchasing  decalcomania  de- 
signs satisfactorily  meets  the  needs  of  their  trade. 

Usually  a  member  of  the  chinaware 
How  New  Designs      producing  firm,  either  alone  or  in 
ARE  Defined  conjunction  with  the  designer  or  sales 

manager,  defines  the  general  charac- 
ter of  new  designs.  In  one  firm  the  designer  himself  evolves 
the  style  to  be  followed.  Study  of  the  import  trade  and  con- 
tacts with  museums  and  books  are  said  to  be  sources  of  in- 
spiration for  new  designs.  In  each  instance  it  was  reported 
that  the  person  or  persons  who  define  the  style  were  developed 
in  the  trade  without  art-school  experience. 

In  the  case  of  decalcomania  manufacturers,  the  demand  for 
new  designs  usually  comes  from  the  manufacturer,  who,  to  a 
large  extent,  obtains  his  suggestions  from  European  designs. 
Prospective  buyers  sometimes  send  in  samples  of  ware,  photo- 
graphs, magazine  clippings,  or  pieces  of  textile  fabrics  contain- 
ing motives  to  be  used  in  the  designs. 

In  some  instances  the  finished  design  is  submitted  by  the 
salesman  to  his  customers  before  it  is  accepted  by  the  decorat- 
ing department.  When  accepted  it  is  later  used  as  a  guide  in 
the  work  of  transfer  and  it  goes  to  the  plate  maker  who  may 
be  either  an  engraver  or  a  lithographer. 


CERAMICS  221 

It  was  found  that  the  head  modelers 
Training  of  in  the  establishments  studied  had  all 

Designers  been  developed  through  practical  ex- 

perience. In  a  number  of  instances 
attendance  upon  evening  art  classes  was  reported.  Of  the  nine 
decorative  designers  employed  by  eight  of  the  manufacturing 
firms  six  were  trained  wholly  in  the  United  States  and  three  in 
Europe.  Of  those  trained  in  the  United  States  two  attended 
day  art  schools,  two  were  trained  in  commercial  practice,  and 
two  were  trained  in  commercial  practice  supplemented  by 
study  in  evening  art  classes.  Of  those  trained  in  Europe  two 
attended  day  and  one  attended  an  evening  art  school  while 
serving  an  apprenticeship  in  engraving. 

The  establishment  representatives  state  that  no  beginners 
direct  from  art  school  are  employed.  It  is  reported  that  this 
has  been  tried  in  one  or  two  instances  but  without  success 
because  of  the  student's  lack  of  practical  knowledge  and  the 
impatience  of  the  experienced  designer.  In  one  establishment 
beginners  direct  from  art  schools  are  employed  in  the  craft  de- 
partment and  designers  are  chosen  from  among  those  workers 
who  have  served  a  number  of  years  in  the  trade. 

The  majority  of  the  establishment  representatives  report 
that  the  work  of  designers  employed  regularly  tends  to  im- 
prove from  year  to  year.  Current  art  literature,  books  and 
advertising  material  are  furnished  by  the  establishments  to 
inspire  designers.  One  representative  states  that  the  continued 
requests  from  customers  for  better  designs  is  sufficient  to 
stimulate  the  designer  to  further  and  constant  develop- 
ment. 

The  three  decalcomania  establishments  studied  employ  a 
total  of  twenty-five  designers,  twelve  of  whom  were  trained 
in  the  United  States  and  thirteen  in  Europe.  Most  of  the 
decalcomania  designers  are  either  foreign  born  or  sons  of 
foreign  born  parents.  As  stated  before  only  a  portion  of  the 
work  of  the  designers  in  two  of  these  establishments  is  con- 
cerned with  ceramic  design. 


222  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

The  salaries  of  craft  workers  range 
Remuneration  of       from  $j  to  I15  a  week.  The  salaries 
Designers  of  experienced  designers  are  said  to 

range  from  $1,400  to  $5,000  a  year. 
There  would  seem  to  be  no  general  scheme  of  salary  progres- 
sion in  any  of  the  establishments  studied. 

It  is  reported  that  designers  employed  in  decalcomania 
establishments  receive  from  |2,ooo  to  $3,500  or  more  a  year. 

In  only  one  case  is  the  opinion  ex- 

Demand  for  pressed  that  the  scope  of  the  estab- 

Designers  lishment  would  be  expanded  if  a 

larger  supply  of  high-grade  designers 

were  available.  One  representative  states,  however,  that  the 

problem  of  finding  competent  designers  is  a  serious  one. 

The  representatives  of  the  three  decalcomania  establish- 
ments say  that  the  business  of  their  firms  would  undoubtedly 
be  expanded  if  a  larger  supply  of  high-grade  designers  were 
available. 

Seven  establishment  representatives 
Training  expressed  views  as  to  the  training  of 

Recommended  by       designers.These  representatives  state 
Establishment         that  the  average  designer  is  imprac- 
Representatives       tical,  unimaginative  and  uninventive 
as  well  as  lacking  in  technical  skill 
and  originality.  Four  representatives  believe  that  the  schools 
should  be  able  to  supply  the  training  needed  for  ceramic  de- 
signers. Three  representatives  state  that  the  designer  should 
be  trained  in  the  industry  and  in  the  school,  the  two  working 
together.  Opinions  were  expressed  that  if  schools  should  under- 
take such  training  emphasis  should  be  placed  upon  a  knowl- 
edge of  historic  ornament  and  period  styles  and  a  study  of 
color  and  decorative  design.  In  addition  to  this  background 
of  artistic  culture  the  school  training  should  develop  the  req- 
uisite technical  skill  in  drawing  as  well  as  ability  to  adapt 
designs  to  dinner  ware  planned  for  use  in  specific  settings. 

Seven  representatives  state  that  students  should  perform 
commercial  work  for  sale  while  in  school  in  order  to  familiar- 


CERAMICS  223 

ize  themselves  with  the  conditions  of  commercial  compe- 
tition. 

While  it  is  agreed  that  it  would  be  beneficial  for  the  student 
to  put  in  a  certain  amount  of  time  at  regular  intervals  in  the 
design  department  of  a  commercial  establishment  as  part  of 
his  training,  the  opinion  was  expressed  that  such  a  plan  would 
be  difficult  to  arrange  on  account  of  the  expense  involved  and 
the  likelihood  that  such  students  would  go  elsewhere  when 
their  training  was  completedif  they  wereofFeredhigher  salaries. 

One  representative  states  that  it  is  difficult  to  train  Ameri- 
cans for  the  needs  of  this  industry  and  that  in  his  entire  expe- 
rience he  has  succeeded  in  training  but  one  American  boy  who 
can  hold  his  own  with  foreign  craftsmen.  He  attributes  this 
failure  to  the  American's  desire  for  rapid  promotion  and  lack 
of  respect  for  authority.  It  is  said  that  girls  do  not  stay  in 
the  work  long  enough  to  acquire  the  necessary  skill. 

The  establishment  representatives  agree  that  it  is  necessary 
for  them  to  assume  considerable  responsibility  for  the  de- 
signer's further  training  after  he  has  been  admitted  to  the 
design  department. 

All  of  the  representatives  of  china  establishments  feel  that 
evening  classes  are  an  important  factor  in  the  training  of  de- 
signers, particularly  those  already  employed  in  the  trade.  The 
three  representatives  of  decalcomania  establishments  feel  that 
evening  classes  are  helpful  in  giving  instruction  in  drawing 
but  that  it  is  impossible  to  give  satisfactory  instruction  in 
color,  which  is  of  primary  importance  in  ceramic  lithography 
in  such  classes. 

Nine  designers  serving  in  chinaware 
Training  establishments  were  interviewed.  Of 

Recommended  by       these,  seven  believe  that  the  designer 
Designers  for  this  industry  can  best  be  trained 

in  evening  art  classes,  while  employed 
in  a  pottery;  one  favors  a  part-time  cooperative  system  of 
training,  and  one  states  that  the  student  should  spend  two 
years  in  day  school  and  follow  this  by  practical  work  in  an 
establishment  supplemented  by  evening  art-school  instruction . 


224  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

It  is  felt  that  the  subjects  which  should  receive  emphasis  in 
the  school  instruction  in  order  of  their  importance  are:  draw- 
ing from  objects,  casts,  nature  and  life;  art  appreciation  and 
history  of  art;  the  study  of  color,  decorative  design,  modeling, 
form.  One  designer  feels  that  speed  should  be  emphasized 
throughout.  Another  feels  that  much  benefit  would  be  derived 
from  making  accurate  copies  of  good  designs  which  have  been 
used  successfully  in  china  decoration. 

Four  designers  believe  that  students  should  make  designs 
for  the  market  during  the  period  of  school  training. 

Seven  representatives  of  china  estab- 
MusEUM  lishments  and  three  representatives 

Collections  of  decalcomania  establishments  ex- 

pressed opinions  as  to  the  value  of 
museum  collections.  Seven  of  these  express  the  opinion  that 
collections  containing  examples  of  ceramic  products  arranged 
historically  are  most  valuable  in  the  training  and  development 
of  designers;  one  states  that  a  library  would  do  just  as  well; 
two  state  that  historic  collections  are  too  far  removed  from 
present-day  needs  to  be  of  great  value  even  though  they  may 
be  of  interest  to  designers  and  might  furnish  considerable  in- 
spiration for  new  designs.  The  representatives  in  favor  of 
museum  collections  state  that  reproductions  as  well  as  origi- 
nals should  be  included.  Six  believe  that  present-day  artistic 
products  should  be  shown,  while  three  do  not  feel  that  it  would 
be  wise  to  do  this  as  such  a  practice  would  cater  to  the  exploi- 
tation of  fads  and  fancies  and  the  introduction  of  unworthy 
examples  of  modern  craftsmanship.  It  is  stated  that  while  no 
existing  museum  completely  fulfills  the  need  of  the  industry, 
the  collections  of  the  Metropolitan  Museum  are  of  great  value. 
Ten  representatives  express  the  conviction  that  museums 
should  be  open  in  the  evenings. 

It  must  be  recognized  when  approach- 

SuMMARY  ing  the  subject  of  decoration  of  table 

china  that  opportunities  for  artistic 

expression  under  the  present  generally  accepted  conventions 

are  limited.  The  first  ideal  of  the  American  housewife  toward 


j^   djtasisj 


I .  Plate  of  vitrified  china  with  underglaze  transfer  decoration 
1.  Plate  of  spar  china  with  underglaze  transfer  decoration 

3.  Plate  of  umber-toned  earthenware  body  with  overglaze  transfer  decoration 

4.  Plate  of  earthenware  with  overglaze  hand  painted  decoration  made  in  England. 

Design  made  in  United  States 


CERAMICS  225 

her  table  furnishings  is  naturally  that  of  cleanliness.  The 
natural  expression  of  this  ideal  is  found  in  white  table  linen 
and  white  china.  If  the  ho\isehold  be  one  of  some  pretension 
where  elegance  is  sought,  this  background  of  white  in  the 
tableware  may  be  relieved  by  a  meagre  element  of  color,  gen- 
erally in  the  form  of  a  narrow  band  of  ornament  upon  the 
plate  rims. 

This  is  very  generally  the  ultimate  limit  of  decoration  con- 
sidered acceptable  in  table  china  in  most  American  homes 
and  its  presence  represents  as  much  an  indication  of  expense 
as  a  desire  for  artistic  expression.  Only  in  a  few  households  of 
exceptional  taste  are  services  found  of  beautiful  sets  of  old- 
world  china  in  which  decorative  color  has  been  given  generous 
expression. 

The  artistic  limitations  of  our  present  conventions  are  ob- 
vious and  it  would  seem  to  be  true  that  little  scope  for  design 
will  be  afforded  in  our  table  china  until  we  develop  greater 
love  for  color  as  a  people  and  the  courage  to  deal  with  our 
table  furnishings  as  an  opportunity  for  the  creation  of  color 
harmonies  comparable  to  those  sought  for  in  other  phases  of 
interior  decoration.  It  is  only  in  this  way  that  our  table  china 
can  become  a  rich  field  for  the  designer  and  an  element  of 
decorative  effect  in  our  homes. 

It  is  true  that  in  our  summer  homes  we  are  beginning  to  in- 
dulge ourselves  more  in  this  element  of  color  in  the  tableware 
and  to  make  use  of  the  earthenwares  of  Spain  and  England, 
the  majolica  of  Italy,  and  the  peasant  potteries  of  France,  as 
well  as  the  products  of  China  and  Japan.  This  tendency  will 
perhaps  in  time  make  itself  felt  in  the  matter  of  our  regular 
tableware,  and  the  time  may  come  when  we  are  no  longer 
afraid  of  using  plates  on  our  tables  making  generous  and 
appropriate  use  of  color. 

The  fact  that  beautiful  and  colorful,  although  expensive 
table  china  can  be  made  and  marketed  in  this  country,  is 
demonstrated  by  the  products  and  standing  of  one  or  two 
firms.  Whether  even  a  modified  wealth  of  color  and  beauty  of 
design  would  find  a  demand  and  appreciation  in  the  larger 


226  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

market  of  less  expensive  ware  is  a  question  not  easy  to  answer. 
Such  products  at  least  point  the  way  and  indicate  the  possi- 
bilities of  producing  finer  things  in  ordinary  tableware  that 
would  help  to  educate  public  taste  in  this  field  instead  of 
merely  following  the  commonplace  demand.  That  such  pro- 
duction might  not  lack  profit  to  the  manufacturer  who  would 
bring  adequate  talent  to  the  task  is  a  proposition  that  must 
rest  on  faith  rather  than  on  demonstration. 

Art  Pottery 

What  may  be  termed  art  pottery  has  never  reached  a  large 
development  in  the  United  States.  Very  few  commercial  firms 
make  a  specialty  of  such  work,  which  includes  vases,  lamp 
bases,  jardinieres,  sconces,  etc.  Two  widely  known  producing 
plants  closely  connected  with  art  schools — the  Rockwood 
Pottery  at  Cincinnati  and  the  H.  Sophie  Newcomb  Memorial 
College  for  Women  at  New  Orleans — have  been  working  in 
this  field  for  a  number  of  years  with  very  creditable  results. 
There  are  besides  a  number  of  craft  potteries  in  the  United 
States  producing  a  small  product  but,  in  some  instances,  one 
of  very  interesting  and  beautiful  quality. 

Design  in  art  pottery  is  not  so  restricted  as  it  is  in  the  field 
of  table  china.  All-over  colored  glazes  are  much  used,  as  are 
also  modeling  and  incised-pattern  effects.  The  matter  of  color 
effects  obtainable  with  glazes  is  relatively  much  more  impor- 
tant than  in  the  case  of  table  china  and  some  of  the  most  suc- 
cessful work  relies  entirely  for  its  appeal  upon  form  and  glaze. 

The  field  is  so  small  that  no  special  comments  would  seem 
necessary.  It  is  to  be  noted,  however,  that  during  the  last  few 
years  very  beautiful  all-over  color  effects  have  been  developed 
both  in  commercial  potteries  and  in  some  of  the  craft  potteries 
that  have  done  much  to  bring  this  material  forward  as  a 
decorative  element  for  American  homes. 


PRINTING 

The  field  occupied  by  the  printing  arts  in  modern  Hfe  is  one 
of  vast  extent.  Not  only  is  printing  with  type  employed  to 
convey  ideas  in  never  ending  volume  through  books,  maga- 
zines, newspapers  and  numberless  other  ways,  but  graphic 
advertising  in  countless  forms  has  become  one  of  the  striking 
features  of  modern  life.  Illustration,  whether  concerned  with 
imaginative  work  or  photographic  reproduction,  represents 
an  important  field.  Printing  also  enters  the  domain  of  the  fine 
arts  as  in  the  caseof  etching,  mezzotint  and  auto-lithography. 
In  all  of  these  fields  the  element  of  composition  and  de- 
sign appears.  The  present  study,  however,  is  restricted  to  a 
study  of  design  as  related  to  the  printed  page  and  to  graphic 
advertising. 

The  processes  of  printing  are  numerous;  type  printing, 
lithography,  offset  printing,  half-tone  or  process  plate  print- 
ing, rotogravure,  line  or  zinc  plate  printing,  wood  block  print- 
ing and  photogravure  are  all  methods  in  common  use.  It  is 
not,  however,  with  any  discussion  of  the  processes  that  this 
study  is  concerned,  but  with  the  conditions  under  which  the 
element  of  design  is  brought  to  bear  upon  the  material  which 
is  to  be  reproduced  by  these  processes. 

In  a  broad  way  the  element  of  design  may  be  said  to  enter 
the  field  of  printing  and  graphic  advertising  through  two 
channels,  one  represented  by  the  compositor  or  layout  man 
who  deals  with  typographical  design  including  ornament,  and 
the  other  by  the  commercial  artist,  so  called,  who  deals  with 
all  kinds  of  pictorial  and  decorative  compositions,  whether  in 
line  or  mass,  which  are  to  be  printed  by  any  of  the  reproduc- 
tive processes.  The  line  between  these  groups  is  not  by  any 
means  a  rigid  one  as  individuals  sometimes  handle  all  aspects 
of  design  and  persons  chiefly  concerned  with  one  field  often 
extend  their  activities  into  the  other.  The  tendency,  however, 
is  to  specialize.  An  artist  who  has  acquired  a  reputation  for 
a  certain  kind  ofwork  usually  confines  his  attention  to  work 


228  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

in  one  medium  and  of  a  distinct  technique.  Many  well- 
known  illustrators  who  have  an  established  "style"  preserve 
their  individual  technique  in  work  for  advertising  purposes. 

The  field  of  the  commercial  artist  extends  from  work  of  the 
highest  order  of  imagination  and  perfection  of  technique  to 
work  that  is  little  more  than  mechanical.  Under  this  latter 
head  may  be  classed  work  of  the  catalogue  type  consisting 
mainly  of  photograph  retouching  and  dealing  with  represen- 
tations of  machinery,  shoes,  automobiles,  and  other  objects 
requiring  great  accuracy  of  delineation. 

Associated  with  the  mechanical  work  of  reproduction  are 
various  other  men  who  need  more  or  less  artistic  talent,  such 
as  lithographers,  plate  retouchers  and  Ben  Day  artists. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the 

Where  Designs  printing,  lithographic  and  photo- 
Are  Obtained  engraving  establishments  are  not 
primarily  under  pressure  to  initiate 
ideas.  Their  first  function  is  to  manufacture.  Ideas  are  brought 
to  them  as  a  general  thing  by  the  advertiser  or  the  advertising 
agency.  The  printer  commonly  plays  the  role  not  of  the 
producer  of  designs  but  that  of  the  reproducer. 

Large  printing  establishments,  however,  often  employ  a 
staff  of  artists.  The  smaller  establishments  usually  depend 
entirely  upon  the  independent  artist  or  studio  for  all  designs 
for  advertising  work. 

Sixteen  of  the  thirty-one  printing  establishments  studied 
employ  no  designers.  These  firms  either  print  merely  what  is 
sent  to  them  by  the  publishers  or  purchase  their  designs  from 
outside  sources.  Lists  are  kept  of  free-lance  artists  and  artists 
employed  in  studios,  with  examples  or  descriptions  of  their 
work,  and  when  a  certain  kind  of  design  is  needed  the  appro- 
priate free-lance  artist  or  service  studio  is  selected  to  do  the 
work  .The  number  of  designs  used  in  a  year  by  each  of  these 
firms  ranges  from  loo  to  400. 

Fifteen  firms  dealing  exclusively  with  printing  employ 
designers,  the  number  ranging  from  one,  in  four  establish- 
ments, to  twenty-three  in  one  establishment. 


PRINTING  229 

Five  or  six  artists  would  seem  to  be  the  average  size  of 
designing  staffs.  Only  two  of  the  firms,  one  employing  five 
designers  and  the  other  three,  depend  entirely  upon  their 
own  designing  staffs  for  the  production  of  new  designs.  One 
firm,  which  employs  two  artist  designers,  obtains  all  of  its 
designs  from  outside  sources.  Representatives  of  the  remain- 
ing twelve  firms  which  employ  designers  all  report  that  some 
designs  are  produced  outside  the  establishment,  the  number 
varying  from  a  small  precentage  to  a  large  proportion  of  the 
output  in  the  case  of  several  concerns.  One  firm  states  that 
about  $50,000  a  year  is  spent  for  work  purchased  from  free- 
lance designers  and  $30,000  a  year  from  service  studios.  It  is 
stated  that  the  prices  paid  for  the  designs  vary  according  to 
the  nature  of  the  design  and  the  reputation  of  the  artist. 
Figures  reported  range  from  $10  to  $1,000  a  design,the  average 
prices  being  from  $25  to  $100. 

Lithographic  establishments  reproduce  the  drawings  or 
designs  submitted  by  the  advertiser  or  advertising  agency. 
They  also  develop  a  considerable  amount  of  designing  in 
their  own  art  departments  for  powers,  broadsides,  etc.,  direct 
for  the  advertiser,  but  the  great  bulk  of  work  comes  to  these 
concerns  mainly  through  designs,  drawings  and  illustra- 
tions made  by  free-lance  artists  or  service  studios  for  the 
individual  or  agency  contracting  for  the  advertising.  Twenty 
of  the  twenty-six  lithographic  establishments  studied  employ 
designers.  These  number  a  total  of  170.  The  entire  twenty-six 
establishments  employ  484  lithographers. 

Five  of  the  twenty-six  lithographic  firms  depend  upon  their 
own  designers  for  the  development  of  new  designs.  The  re- 
maining firms  report  that  designs  are  purchased  outside.  Two 
firms  depend  entirely  upon  outside  designers  for  new  designs. 
Figures  as  to  the  number  of  designs  purchased  outside  range 
from  50  to  100,  or  200  to  1,200  in  the  case  of  one  firm.  The 
prices  paid  for  designs  have  a  very  wide  range,  i.  e.,  from  an 
average  of  |io  to  $250  to  as  high  as  $3,000  for  a  design  by  a 
popular  artist.  It  is  stated  that  the  designs  do  not  generally 
need  to  be  modified  but  are  usually  satisfactory  for  use. 


230  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

Oftentimes,  however,  the  outside  artist  has  been  commissioned 
to  develop  only  certain  elements  of  a  design,  which  is  then 
finished  in  the  lithographic  establishment. 

Europe  exercises  very  little  influence  upon  the  character  of 
lithographic  or  other  advertising  design  in  this  country, 
largely  because  of  what  is  considered  to  be  the  unsuitability 
of  foreign  designs  to  American  advertising  needs. 

The  main  work  performed  by  the  photo-engraving  houses 
is  that  of  making  plates  for  the  publishers  or  printers  who 
furnish  designs  or  drawings.  A  very  small  amount  of  designing 
as  a  rule  is  performed  in  these  establishments,  and  only  a  few 
designers  are  employed.  Their  work  is  more  or  less  of  a  me- 
chanical character,  consisting  mainly  in  developing  layouts 
of  photographic  material  for  advertisements  in  magazines, 
newspapers,  etc.  On  the  other  hand,  certain  large  houses 
identified  with  photo-engraving  work  include  printing  plants 
in  their  organization  and  employ  large  numbers  of  artists 
representing  much  diversity  of  talent. 

Sixteen  of  the  seventeen  photo-engraving  establishments 
studied,  including  four  concerns  of  the  type  just  noted,  em- 
ploy designers  the  number  of  which  totals  289.  Four  repre- 
sentatives report  that  no  designs  are  purchased  from  outside 
sources.  Thirteen  state  that  a  proportion  ranging  from  a  few 
to  the  entire  number  used  is  purchased  outside  the  establish- 
ment. The  number  of  designs  purchased  annually  ranges  from 
50  to  200. 

Trade  journals  and  newspapers  maintain  a  stafi^  of  artists 
in  connection  with  their  advertising  departments  which  pre- 
pare the  layouts  for  the  simpler  advertisements  which  in- 
volve drawings. 

By  far  the  largest  number  of  designs  for  important  adver- 
tising contracts,  regardless  of  whether  these  are  to  appear  in 
magazines,  newspapers,  catalogues,  pamphlets,  poster  or 
other  forms,  are  obtained  by  the  printing  and  other  producing 
establishments  from  free-lance  artists  or  service  studios,  or 
are  turned  over  to  the  establishments  by  advertising  agencies. 

The  agency  has  developed  to  a  commanding  position  in  the 


Painting  by  Helen  Dry  den  made  for  a  silk  manufacturing  firm  for  advertising  use 


PRINTING  231 

whole  field  of  advertising.  The  large  agencies  represent 
organizations  of  a  very  complete  type  involving  provisions 
for  planning,  research,  accounting  and  art  direction.  They 
not  only  develop  the  general  plan  for  an  advertising  campaign 
and  the  nature  of  the  advertisement  but  place  the  same  in 
magazines,  newspapers  or  other  vehicles. 

At  one  time  the  advertising  agencies  maintained  large  art 
departments,  but  in  most  cases  this  staff  has  been  reduced 
to  a  few  men  to  make  layouts  and  designs  and  to  a  few  to 
make  last-moment  changes  in  a  design  or  to  regroup  advertise- 
ments. The  bulk  of  the  art  work  for  the  agencies  is  now  han- 
dled by  independent  artists  or  the  art  service  organizations. 

Twenty-seven  advertising  agencies  were  studied  by  mem- 
bers of  the  field  staff.  All  except  one  of  these  agencies  were 
found  to  employ  designers.  These  totaled  276,  five  being 
women. 

In  an  advertising  agency  the  art  director  serves  as  the 
connecting  link  between  the  business  organization  in  which 
the  general  scheme  of  an  advertisement  is  planned  and  the 
artist  who  is  selected  to  develop  the  design.  Knowing  the 
personnel  represented  in  the  service  studios  and  also  the 
special  talents  of  a  large  number  of  free-lance  artists,  his 
experience  and  judgment  allows  him  to  select  the  artist  best 
qualified  to  carry  out  a  particular  design. 

Each  designer  is  liable  to  possess  a  special  technique  which 
is  suited  to  a  particular  line  of  illustration  and  this  wide  field 
furnishes  almost  unlimited  specialists  from  whom  to  select 
when  a  new  design  is  to  be  carried  out.  Moreover,  it  is  stated 
that  the  output  of  men  in  an  agency  staff  is  liable  to  become 
stereotyped,  whereas  the  wide  range  of  selection  possible 
outside  of  the  establishments  offers  a  fresh  and  different 
viewpoint  for  each  design  or  illustration. 

Certain  large  advertisers  maintain  an  advertising  manager 
in  their  own  organizations  who  attends  to  the  development 
of  designs  for  his  particular  firm.  Large  department  stores 
and  many  other  concerns  putting  out  much  advertising  often 
employ  artists  in  the  establishments  to  develop  designs  for 


232  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

their  own  service,  either  in  newspaper  or  direct  by  mail 
advertising. 

The  service  studio  represents  an  organization  of  artists  of 
various  special  talents.  Such  an  organization  may  represent 
anything  from  one  or  two  artists  associated  together  for 
commercial  work,  to  a  highly  developed  business,  employing 
a  large  staff  of  artists  and  other  workers.  The  business  depart- 
ment of  such  organizations  takes  care  of  soliciting,  interview- 
ing and  collecting  accounts  and  allows  the  artist  to  concen- 
trate on  the  creative  side  of  his  work.  A  large  part  of  the  work 
of  the  service  studio  is  brought  to  it  by  advertising  agencies. 

Service  studios  sometimes  specialize  in  one  branch  of  work, 
such  as  men's  and  women's  clothing.  These  studios  are  of  the 
type  that  make  the  drawings  for  mail  order  catalogues.  The 
portrayal  of  men's  and  women's  fashions  requires  such  highly 
specialized  treatment  and  technique  that  only  those  who 
have  concentrated  upon  such  work  for  a  long  period  meet 
the  demands.  The  degree  of  this  specialization  is  illustrated 
in  the  matter  of  collar  advertisements.  Only  a  few  artists  in 
New  York  City  are  considered  satisfactory  for  such  work. 
Some  of  these  men  draw  nothing  but  collars,  and  the  rendering 
of  these  articles  for  shape,  fit  and  general  appearance  is  a 
very  difficult  thing  to  accomplish  in  a  manner  that  will  satisfy 
the  advertiser.  Another  example  is  the  case  of  drawings  for 
shoes. 

Seventeen  service  studios  were  visited,  six  of  which  special- 
ize in  drawings  for  mail  order  catalogues.  All  of  these  studios 
employed  designers.  A  total  of  306  men  and  1 8  women  de- 
signers were  engaged  in  these  establishments. 

In  the  field  of  commercial  art,  the  free-lance  artist  has 
reached  a  position  unique  among  designers.  Here,  where 
personality,  special  talent  and  imaginative  quality  count 
for  so  much,  free-lance  artists  of  ability  have  been  able  to 
command  a  position  practically  independent  of  any  organiz- 
ation, where  their  work  is  eagerly  sought  for  by  the  advertis- 
ing agencies  and  the  large  advertisers. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  should  be  kept  in  mind  that  free-lance 


PRINTING  ^1,2 

artists  include  practically  all  grades  of  ability — the  situation 
demanding  not  only  the  services  of  men  of  the  highest  order 
of  talent  but  of  others  fitted  only  for  very  ordinary  work  or 
some  narrow  specialty. 

If  the  independent  artist  of  strong  artistic  talent  has  also 
business  ability  to  deal  with  customers  he  is  liable  to  make 
larger  returns  than  if  he  were  employed  in  a  studio.  In  the 
case  of  important  work  the  name  of  the  artist  producing  the 
design  is  usually  printed  on  the  design  as  it  is  recognized 
that  this  adds  additional  advertising  value  to  the  illustration. 

Printing  establishments  and  advertising  agencies  often 
give  office  space  to  free-lance  designers  for  the  convenience 
of  having  them  on  hand  for  immediate  service. 

In  1920  the  Guild  of  Free-Lance  Artists  was  formed  in 
New  York  City.  The  object  of  the  guild  is  to  enable  the 
individual  artist  through  cooperative  action  to  be  brought  in 
touch  with  possible  customers  in  a  broader  way  than  is 
possible  for  him  operating  wholly  as  an  individual. 

In  the  office  maintained  by  the  guild  are  screens  upon  which 
are  displayed  examples  of  the  work  of  members.  These  give 
a  clear  idea  to  an  intending  advertiser  of  the  special  qualities 
of  the  different  artists  and  allow  the  selection  of  those  that 
seem  most  adapted  to  his  particular  needs  or  tastes. 

Folders  containing  proofs  of  work  of  members  are  kept  on 
hand  and  sent  on  request  to  advertisers  in  any  part  of  the 
country  who  cannot  conveniently  visit  the  office  and  who 
desire  to  be  brought  in  touch  with  artists  for  some  particular 
project.  A  corresponding  secretary  attends  to  inquiries  by 
mail  as  to  artists  most  suited  for  particular  lines  of  work  and 
through  the  list  of  addresses  kept  on  file  members  can  be 
quickly  reached  in  answer  to  any  demand  that  comes  to  the 
office. 

In  some  cases  a  client  has  a  very 

How  New  Designs      definite  idea  of  the  manner  in  which 

Are  Defined  he  wishes  an  idea  put  forth,  in  which 

case  his  specifications  are  followed 

quite  closely.  At  other  times  he  has  in  mind  only  the  concep- 


234  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

tion  of  the  end  to  be  reached  and  the  person  who  defines  the 
design  must  interpret  the  problem  according  to  his  conception 
of  what  is  most  suitable  and  appropriate. 

When  the  work  is  purely  typographic,  this  matter  of  design 
is  commonly  settled  between  the  customer  and  the  office 
representative  with  the  aid  of  a  layout  man  in  the  case  of 
large  printing  establishments,  and  with  the  head  of  the  com- 
posing room  in  the  smaller  firms.  Where  graphic  advertising 
is  concerned  a  rough  sketch  or  layout  is  first  made  indicating 
the  arrangement  of  essential  features.  With  the  larger  firms 
this  may  be  developed  by  the  layout  man  or  the  designer  in 
conference  with  the  salesman  or  client  in  the  case  of  producing 
establishments.  If  the  firm  depends  upon  free-lance  artists 
for  its  designs  an  artist  may  be  called  in  who  is  deemed  best 
fitted  to  execute  this  particular  kind  of  work  and  the  problem 
presented  to  him.  A  sketch  made  by  this  artist  is  usually 
submitted  for  approval  before  it  is  completed  and  a  finished 
drawing  made. 

In  the  case  of  advertising  agencies  and  service  studios,  the 
layout  is  commonly  developed  by  the  art  director  and  some 
member  of  the  staflF.  Many  advertising  agencies  employ 
artists  called  creative  men  who  make  rather  complete  sketches 
of  what  is  wanted,  keeping  in  mind  in  important  cases  the 
technique  of  the  artist  who  is  to  render  the  design  eventually. 

Many  designs  embodying  carefully  thought  out  ideas  for 
an  advertising  campaign  are  also  developed  by  advertising 
agencies  and  others  for  submission  to  advertisers  in  the  hope 
that  their  interest  may  be  developed  and  a  contract  gained. 

In  some  cases  the  scheme  of  the 
Work  of  Designers  design  is  clearly  defined  when  pre- 
sented to  the  artist.  At  other  times 
the  idea  is  only  roughly  indicated  and  the  development  of  the 
design  is  left  almost  entirely  to  the  designer  with  restrictions 
as  to  size  and  colors. 

After  the  general  layout  has  been  brought  to  the  designer 
the  finished  design  is  usually  evolved  through  a  series  of 
sketches  which  are  then  submitted  to  the  client  or  other 


PRINTING  23s 

person  and  the  one  selected  is  finished  for  reproduction.  The 
process  in  detail  is  sometimes  as  follows :  keeping  in  mind  the 
process  by  which  the  design  is  to  be  reproduced,  several 
sketches  indicating  the  finished  appearance  of  the  project 
are  made.  They  are  then  submitted  to  the  advertiser.  When 
one  is  accepted,  the  design  is  enlarged  and  finished  with  great 
care  according  to  the  requirements  of  the  particular  process 
to  be  used  in  the  printing. 

This  design  must  conform  with  the  copy  and  general  lay- 
out. It  must  have  commercial  or  advertising  punch.  It  must 
tell  a  story  that  will  sell  goods.  It  must  make  an  appeal  to  the 
eye  that  will  attract  attention  to  the  story  set  forth. 

Much  of  this  work  means  little  but  the  expression  of  a 
selling  idea  in  terms  of  realistic  portrayal  of  the  article  to  be 
sold.  A  further  development  is  the  type  where  a  pleasing 
drawing  or  detail  is  relied  upon  to  catch  the  eye  and  carry 
the  reading  matter.  Then  comes  "prestige"  or  "quality"  ad- 
vertising where  no  mention  is  made  of  prices  or  lists  but 
where  the  effort  is  to  associate  and  identify  the  trade  name 
with  an  air  of  distinction  and  refinement.  In  exceptional  cases 
the  opportunity  is  presented  to  subordinate  to  a  minimum  ail 
merchandising  references  and  to  develop  the  design  with  little 
other  consideration  than  that  of  beauty  and  artistic  appeal. 
Personal  records  were  obtained  from 
Training  of  200  designers.  Of  these,  thirty-two 

Designers  were  employed  in  printing  establish- 

ments, twenty-two  in  lithographic 
establishments,  fifty-two  in  photo-engraving  establishments 
while  sixty-four  were  connected  with  service  studios  or 
advertising  agencies  and  thirty  were  free-lance  artists.  Of 
these,  a  total  of  177  were  trained  in  the  United  States,  fourteen 
in  Europe,  and  nine  in  the  United  States  and  Europe  or 
Canada.  Of  the  designers  trained  in  the  United  States  sixty- 
four  received  an  education  in  day  art  schools,  eighty-one 
were  trained  in  commercial  practice  supplemented  by  evening 
art  school  instruction,  and  thirty-two  were  trained  entirely 
in  commercial  practice.  Of  those  trained  in  Europe  ten  atten- 


iil^  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

ded  day  art  schools  and  four  were  trained  in  commercial 
practice  supplemented  by  evening  art  school  work. 

It  should  be  noted  that  the  designers  in  producing  estab- 
lishments from  whom  records  were  obtained  were  mainly  of 
the  superior  type.  Those  with  little  education  engaged  in 
lower  grade  work  often  regarded  the  interviewer's  questions 
with  suspicion  and  refused  information. 

In  the  case  of  lithographic  and  photo-engraving  establish- 
ments, advertising  agencies  and  studios,  a  considerable  majori- 
ty report  that  they  employ  beginners  direct  from  art  schools. 
In  a  number  of  cases  it  is  stated  that  this  policy  has  often 
not  worked  out  very  successfully,  principally  because  of  the 
student's  lack  of  knowledge  of  the  requirements  of  reproduc- 
tion and  also  because  of  failure  to  grasp  the  quality  needed 
for  successful  advertising  matter. 

The  salaries  paid  to  designers  em- 
Remuneration  of      ployed    in    establishments    and    in 
Designers  studios   as  reported  range  from  a 

minimum  of  I750  to  1 10,000  and 
above  in  exceptional  cases.  The  free-lance  artist  is  paid 
according  to  the  design.  In  the  case  of  artists  of  great  reputa- 
tion the  remuneration  reaches  high  figures. 

In  the  summer  of  1920  when  most  of 

Demand  for  the   investigations  of  the  printing 

Designers  trade  were  conducted  the  demand 

for  artists  of  the  highest  talent  and 

training  was  much  greater  than  the  supply.  Successful  and 

well-known  designers  were  crowded  with  work  and  were 

obliged  to  refuse  many  commissions.  One  of  the  real  concerns 

of  the  advertising  agencies  at  this  time  was  the  difficulty 

experienced  in  obtaining  sufficient  high-grade  talent  for  the 

volume  of  their  business. 

A  majority  of  establishment  repre- 

Training  sentatives  expressed  the  conviction 

Recommended  by       that  the  most  satisfactory  and  effect- 

EsTABLiSHMENT         ivefoundation  training  in  preparation 

Representatives       for  work  in  the  commercial  art  field 

can  be  obtained  through  day  art 


Black  and  white  composition  by  Rockwell  Kent  for  use  in  magazine . 
advertising  by  a  jewelry  establishment 


Black  and  white  composition  by  Walter  D.  T'eaguejor  use  in  magazine 
advertising  for  an  automobile  concern 


PRINTING  237 

schools,  provided  an  understanding  of  the  fundamental  re- 
quirements of  advertising  design  is  imparted  in  these  schools. 
In  the  case  of  the  art  directors  of  advertising  agencies  this 
view  is  expressed  by  some  eighty-five  per  cent,  of  those  inter- 
viewed. In  a  number  of  cases  the  opinion  was  stated  that 
working  contact  with  a  commercial  establishment  should  be 
had  by  the  students  in  the  last  year  of  their  school  work. 

A  majority  of  representatives  state  that  the  situation 
demands  that  employers  admit  graduates  of  art  schools  to 
the  design  rooms  and  assume  responsibility  for  their  fur- 
ther development,  but  along  with  recognition  of  this  respon- 
sibility, is  coupled  the  feeling  that  the  art  schools  should  do 
more  in  equipping  their  graduates  with  an  understanding  of 
the  practical  requirements  of  work  under  commercial  condi- 
tions. As  a  general  thing,  employers  are  willing  to  encourage 
young  people  to  enter  the  field  of  commercial  art  but  few 
managers  feel  that  they  can  spare  the  time  required  to  train 
inexperienced  designers  in  this  work. 

A  majority  of  the  representatives  of  printing  and  photo- 
engraving establishments  state  that  it  is  impracticable  to 
have  students  spend  a  certain  amount  of  time  at  regular 
intervals  in  the  design  room  of  a  commercial  establishment  as 
part  of  their  training.  In  the  case  of  lithographic  establish- 
ments, however,  two-thirds  of  the  representatives  express 
themselves  as  of  the  opinion  that  such  an  arrangement  would 
be  very  desirable  and  that  it  is  possible  that  such  a  plan 
could  be  worked  out  upon  the  part  of  the  establishments. 

Desirable  personal  qualities  in  a  designer  most  emphasized 
are  fertility  of  imagination  and  sensitiveness  to  new  ideas. 
The  equipment  that  should  be  gained  through  training  indi- 
cated by  the  larger  number  of  replies  in  order  of  emphasis  is 
as  follows:  facility  in  drawing  in  various  media,  knowledge 
of  technical  requirements  of  production,  understanding  of 
advertising  point  of  view,  feeling  for  color,  ability  in  compo- 
sition and  design,  a  background  of  artistic  culture  and  skill 
in  rendering. 

Particular  points  that  are  often  emphasized  are  as  follows : 


238  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

The  designer  should  be  taught  to  create  and  visualize  at  the 
same  time.  There  should  be  a  great  deal  of  training  in  drawing 
from  life  in  different  poses  and  this  should  not  be  merely 
faithful  copy  of  the  human  figure  but  practice  in  rapid  sketch- 
ing, first  from  the  model  and  then  from  memory  with  a  definite 
idea  or  application  in  mind.  In  working  from  the  model  a 
student  should  be  trained  to  draw  the  figure,  not  merely  to 
copy  it. 

It  is  stated  that  the  successful  commercial  designer  must 
possess  ability  to  grasp  and  visualize  ideas  from  an  advertis- 
ing standpoint  and  to  present  these  ideas  forcefully  and 
graphically  with  the  proper  sense  of  balance  and  composition, 
also  in  colors  which  will  be  most  effective  and  reproduce  to 
advantage.  The  drawing  must  be  so  well  executed  that  it  will 
easily  meet  the  commercial  limitations  of  production. 

In  addition  to  the  lack  of  understanding  of  commercial 
requirements  the  principal  weaknesses  in  the  training  and 
equipment  of  designers  which  are  mentioned  by  establish- 
ment representatives  are  the  following:  lack  of  imagination 
and  inventiveness,  lack  of  breadth  of  culture  and  general 
art  appreciation  as  well  as  lack  of  knowledge  of  the  funda- 
mentals of  historic  ornament.  It  is  also  stated  that  many 
commercial  artists  are  poor  figure  draftsmen. 

With  but  few  exceptions  it  is  felt  that  evening  classes  repre- 
sent a  very  helpful  element  in  the  training  of  designers. 
Several  express  the  belief  that  if  these  classes  are  taught  by 
practical  and  able  teachers  the  work  of  the  designer  should 
improve  in  draftsmanship  and  design  as  well  as  in  under- 
standing of  the  technical  requirements  of  production.  It  is 
reported  that  some  of  the  best  commercial  designers  of  the 
day  have  been  trained  in  evening  classes. 

A  total  of  194  designers  expressed 

Training  opinions  as  to  the  most  desirable 

Recommended  by       training  for  designers  in  the  various 

Designers  branches  of  the  printing  industry.- 

Of  these  thirty  were  free-lance  artists, 

sixty  were  artists  connected  with  advertising  agencies  or 


PRINTING  239 

service  studios,  and  104  were  designers  in  producing  estab- 
lishments. 

One  hundred  thirty-seven  believe  that  the  designer  should 
receive  his  training  first  in  an  art  school  and  later  make  con- 
tact with  a  producing  establishment  or  studio.  Forty-three 
believe  that  it  would  be  desirable  if  a  combination  of  com- 
mercial experience  and  art  school  training  could  be  arranged. 
Fourteen  recommend  that  a  student  should  first  acquire  a 
commercial  experience  and  then  make  some  arrangement 
whereby  he  may  obtain  training  in  art. 

Opinions  as  to  the  length  of  time  which  should  be  spent  in 
an  art  school  range  from  two  to  five  years  with  a  large  ma- 
jority indicating  three  years. 

Important  subject  matter  of  instruction  in  the  order  of 
emphasis  is  given  as  follows :  drawing  and  rendering  in  various 
media,  knowledge  of  requirements  of  reproduction  processes, 
color  and  painting,  design  and  ornament,  composition, 
lettering,  sketching,  advertising  principles,  type  faces,  history 
of  art,  art  appreciation.  Three  designers  express  the  convic- 
tion that  much  benefit  is  gained  through  copying  the  work 
of  successful  commercial  artists. 

In  the  case  of  mail  order  studio  heads  the  feeling  is  expres- 
sed that  the  school  alone  cannot  equip  for  work  in  this  field 
but  that  actual  experience  in  a  studio  is  necessary. 

Several  designers  state  the  belief  that  students  without 
ability  should  not  be  allowed  to  continue  their  work  in  an 
art  school. 

The  criticism  of  their  art  school  course  most  commonly 
noted  by  designers  was  the  small  attention  paid  to  the  prac- 
tical applications  of  their  work.  Several  designers,  however, 
state  that  the  training  received  gave  them  a  foundation  in 
drawing  and  the  principles  of  design  and  created  an  appre- 
ciation of  beautiful  work  in  art. 

In  addition  to  the  records  obtained  from  personal  inter- 
views, extremely  interesting  letters  were  received  by  corre- 
spondence from  eighty-seven  art  directors  of  advertising 
agencies  and  from  102  prominent  free-lance  artists. 


240  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

The  letters  returned  contain  in  many  cases  opinions  ex- 
pressed with  much  conviction  and  suggestions  at  considerable 
length  showing  the  writer's  idea  as  to  desirable  elements  in 
the  course  of  study  and  the  relative  emphasis  to  be  placed 
on  these.  These  letters  are  considered  so  valuable  and  sug- 
gestive that  excerpts  from  a  number  have  been  made  and 
will  be  found  printed  as  an  addendum  to  this  report. 

Forty-four  of  the  letters  from  art  directors  state  the  con- 
viction that  the  art  school  is  the  place  where  fundamental 
training  should  be  obtained  for  workers  in  the  commercial 
art  field.  The  elements  that  are  emphasized  in  such  training 
in  order  of  importance  are:  drawing,  composition  and  design. 

Thirty-eight  of  the  replies  state  the  opinion  that  such  art 
school  training  should  involve  instruction  in  advertising 
composition,  theory  of  advertising  and  the  requirements  of 
the  reproductive  processes.  Knowledge  of  type  faces  and 
lettering  is  also  noted  as  important. 

Seventy-five  of  the  letters  received  from  free-lance  artists 
emphasize  the  conviction  that  art  schools  provide  the  best 
opportunity  for  the  fundamental  training  required  for  the 
commercial  art  field.  They  emphasize  the  basic  importance 
of  drawing  and  painting,  composition  and  design,  breadth  of 
art  culture,  gained  by  study  of  works  of  art  of  all  periods  and 
countries,  and  stimulation  of  the  imagination  through  prob- 
lems in  composition.  Fifty-five  of  these  letters  emphasize  the 
opinion  that  the  schools  should  give  instruction  in  advertising 
composition  and  a  knowledge  of  the  requirements  of  repro- 
ductive processes.  Several  state  that  the  latter  should  require 
only  a  short  amount  of  time.  Nine  of  these  artists  expressed 
the  opinion  that  apprenticeship  in  service  studio  or  engraving 
house  with  attendance  upon  night  classes  offers  a  preferable 
method  of  training. 

Forty-eight  of  the  free-lance  artists  indicate  the  source  of 
their  training.  With  four  or  five  exceptions  all  received  train- 
ing in  art  schools,  nearly  half  having  studied  in  the  Art 
Students  League  and  the  second  highest  number  in  the  Chi- 
cago Art  Institute. 


PRINTING  241 

With  few  exceptions  establishments 

Museum  and  studio  representatives  expressed 

Collections  the  belief  that  collections  of  artistic 

printing  arranged  historically  would 
be  of  great  value  to  the  designer,  illustrator,  buyer  and  estab- 
lishment. At  the  same  time  the  opinion  is  generally  expressed 
that  in  this  field  the  library  is  liable  to  offer  even  greater 
practical  help  than  the  museum. 

The  feeling  is  expressed  that  the  specimens  should  be 
originals  wherever  possible  but  that  good  photographic 
reproductions  should  be  included  to  make  collections  more 
complete.  All  of  the  representatives  feel  that  museums  and 
libraries  should  provide  for  the  display  of  present-day  exam- 
ples of  the  printing  art. 

The  majority  feel  that  museums  should  be  open  in  the 
evening. 

The  printing  arts  have  become  es- 
SuMMARY  sential  to  the  existence  of  modern 

democracy  and  their  great  develop- 
ment in  this  country  represents  a  very  significant  element  in 
American  life.  Nowhere  in  the  world  is  the  printed  page  so 
much  sought  for  as  in  this  country.  Not  only  is  this  true,  but 
it  would  seem  safe  to  say  that  in  the  development  of  artistic 
type  and  in  the  arrangement  of  printed  matter  several  of  our 
foremost  printers  have  reached  a  point  that  is  unexcelled 
elsewhere. 

In  considering  the  training  needed  for  this  field  of  work  it 
is  necessary  to  review  present  conditions.  The  day  of  the 
printer  who  planned  his  page  and  selected  and  set  his  type  is 
gone  by.  Today  no  one  person  is  fully  responsible  for  the 
finished  result.  Division  of  labor  and  the  machine  rule  the 
situation  in  the  modern  printing  establishment.  The  type- 
casting machine  is  the  great  feature  in  the  new  order.  The 
character  of  type  available  for  printing  is  largely  governed  by 
the  dies  furnished  with  these  machines  by  the  two  great 
manufacturing  companies  and  by  the  case  type  made  by  the 
chief  foundry  concern.  Fortunately  in  all  three  of  these 


242  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

establishments  the  management  has  placed  persons  in  charge 
of  type  design  who  are  exercising  an  admirable  influence  in 
developing  type  of  fine  quality. 

The  layout  man  in  the  modern  establishment  has  taken  the 
place  of  the  old  printer  in  the  matter  of  selection  of  type  and 
page  arrangement.  His  education  as  well  as  that  of  the  head 
compositor  is  generally  gained  in  practical  experience.  A  few 
are  being  trained  in  printing  trade  schools  in  which  some 
attention  is  given  to  design  and  composition.  Many  have 
received  help  from  evening  schools  and  many  more  would 
obtain  valuable  assistance  from  this  source  were  classes  in 
the  printing  arts  taught  by  competent  and  talented  persons 
more  widely  developed. 

For  the  artist-printer  or  typographer  who  brings  forth  a 
printed  book  that  is  an  example  of  the  highest  art  expression 
we  must  apparently  depend  upon  the  evolution  of  exceptional 
individuals,  individuals  with  innate  sensitiveness  to  the 
quality  of  the  printed  page,  who  have  steeped  themselves  in 
the  culture  of  books  and  acquired  a  knowledge  of  all  that  is 
bestinthe  artof  printing  from  its  beginning  to  the  presenttime. 

Advertising  is  an  art  that  we  have  carried  further  than 
any  other  country.  Our  consumption  of  goods  is  largely  efi^ect- 
ed  through  its  medium.  Its  volume  and  diversity  have  become 
synonomous  with  American  business  methods.  During  the 
last  dozen  years  the  artistic  quality  of  some  of  our  graphic 
work  has  reached  a  very  high  level — a  level  that  with  possible 
exception  of  the  best  European  posters  would  seem  unsur- 
passed by  the  products  of  foreign  artists. 

Not  many  years  ago  the  idea  of  engaging  in  commercial 
art  was  looked  down  upon  by  the  artist  of  any  reputation 
who  had  been  trained  as  a  painter.  It  was  difficult  to  induce 
such  artists  to  enter  this  field  and  it  was  not  until  a  few  had 
been  tempted  by  generous  offers  that  they  consented  to  "com- 
mercialize" their  art.  Since  then  the  situation  has  changed 
considerably.  When  artists  of  ability  recognized  the  high 
standards  to  which  advertising  art  had  progressed,  their 
scruples  tended  to  disappear. 


PRINTING  243 

Today  some  of  the  artists  of  the  strongest  and  most  virile 
talent  in  the  country  are  engaged  in  lucrative  work  in  the 
field  of  commercial  art.  The  demand  has  developed  to  such 
a  high  order,  and  the  call  for  exceptional  talent  is  so  much  on 
the  increase,  that  the  search  for  men  and  women  of  the  highest 
quality  still  goes  on. 

The  question  of  efficiently  training  such  artists  becomes 
in  consequence  a  very  important  question.  The  general  feeling 
is  that  no  school  at  present  gives  thoroughly  satisfactory 
training  for  this  field.  The  majority  of  art  directors  believe, 
however,  that  it  is  entirely  within  the  possibilities  of  the  art 
schools  to  train  young  men  so  that  they  would  be  far  better 
equipped  than  at  present  for  the  advertising  field.  The  con- 
sensus of  opinion  from  all  concerned  is  that  the  broadest 
training  in  drawing,  composition  and  design  is  needed  for 
such  persons  and  that  the  art  school  offers  the  best  opportu- 
nity for  such  training. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  almost  uniformly  recognized  by 
employers,  art  directors  and  artists  working  in  the  field  that 
there  should  be  introduced  into  the  training  of  the  art  schools 
from  which  workers  come  into  this  field,  a  certain  amount  of 
instruction  that  will  give  the  students  a  better  preparation 
than  is  now  the  case  for  entering  upon  practical  work.  It  is 
felt  that  instruction  in  advertising  composition  should  form 
an  element  in  such  training.  It  is  also  felt  that  the  theory  of 
advertising  and  the  requirements  imposed  upon  the  designer 
by  the  processes  of  reproducton  should  be  set  forth.  The 
general  feeling  is  that  these  last  two  elements  could  be  com- 
passed with  comparatively  little  expenditure  of  time  and 
might  well  take  the  form  of  lectures. 

While  these  propositions  to  include  a  certain  amount  of 
technical  or  practical  instruction  in  the  work  of  the  art  schools 
seem  thoroughly  essential  and  logical  to  those  concerned  with 
the  work  of  artists  in  this  field,  they  are  evidently  propositions 
that  do  not  always  fit  well  with  the  psychology  of  youth.  A 
large  proportion  of  the  students  who  are  well  adapted  for 
later  work  in  commercial  art  go  to  the  art  schools  with  their 


244  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

ideals  strongly  fixed  upon  a  career  as  a  painter.  During  the 
school  period  these  ideals  fill  their  minds  and  determine  the 
work  toward  which  they  incline.  The  practical  elements  above 
mentioned  make  relatively  small  appeal,  and  in  many  cases 
would  be  passed  over  if  offered.  This  state  of  mind  is  undoubt- 
edly encouraged  in  many  cases  by  the  attitude  of  instructors 
who  throw  the  weight  of  their  influence  strongly  against 
"degrading"  art  by  commercial  considerations. 

The  economic  facts  of  the  whole  situation  facing  these 
students  would  seem,  however,  to  lay  a  responsibility  upon 
the  art  schools  to  provide  in  as  far  as  possible  instruction  in 
the  practical  elements  noted  above. 

The  problem  facing  the  art  schools  in  this  matter  of  training 
for  the  commercial  art  field  would  seem,  indeed,  to  be  largely 
that  of  infiltrating  the  teachings  of  mature  experience  into 
the  mind  and  vision  of  youth.  With  students  not  only  equip- 
ped with  a  broad  and  thorough  art  training,  but  with  an 
understanding  of  the  requirements  of  commercial  art  and  an 
inspired  interest  in  this  field,  there  would  seem  to  be  little 
danger  but  that  the  employer,  the  art  director,  and  the 
studio  manager  will  stand  willing  to  do  their  part  in  the 
further  development  of  such  young  persons. 


A  special  problem  relating  to  the  lithographic  industry 
would  seem  to  demand  some  reference  in  this  report. 

To  attract  men  of  real  artistic  ability  as  lithographers  has 
been  a  problem  of  this  industry  for  many  years.  The  work  of 
the  lithographer  is  to  transfer  a  design  or  painting  to  the 
stone  ready  for  printing  with  its  full  quality  retained.  This 
is  not  a  creative  task  but  it  is  one  calling  for  much  skill  in 
color  and  rendering  and  for  genuine  artistic  feeling.  For 
poster  work  the  highest  skill  is  required  to  draw  a  design 
in  a  size  about  forty  times  as  large  as  the  original  and  retain 
the  feeling  intended  by  the  artist. 

Effort  has  been  made  continually  to  recruit  the  ranks  of 
lithographers  through  apprenticeship  and  a  number  of  at- 


PRINTING  245 

tempts  have  been  made  to  develop  such  workers  through 
school  training.  Earnest  efforts  have  also  been  made  to 
attract  students  from  life  and  other  classes  of  art  schools  into 
this  field  but  all  these  measures  have  been  only  moderately 
successful  and  the  greatest  need  of  the  lithographic  trade 
today  is  a  larger  supply  of  artists  for  work  on  stones,  possess- 
ing both  technical  skill  and  artistic  feeling. 

Some  of  the  leading  artists  of  America  have  come  from  the 
ranks  of  the  poster  lithographers,  but  the  supply  of  men  with 
real  artistic  ability  has  never  equalled  the  demand. 

One  cause  for  this  unreadiness  of  artistically  trained  youth 
to  enter  or  remain  at  lithographic  work  lies  probably  in  the 
fact  that  the  work  is  after  all  essentially  mechanical  and  not 
creative  and  men  of  real  creative  ability  are  likely  to  turn  to 
other  fields  offering  greater  freedom  even  if  the  assurance  of 
return  is  less.  Another  reason  is  to  be  found  in  the  fact  that 
art  school  students  are  but  little  informed  of  the  scope  and 
nature  of  this  field  or  instructed  in  the  requirements  thereof. 

The  solution  or  amelioration  of  the  difficulty  would  seem 
to  depend  largely  upon  measures  instituted  within  the  trade 
itself.  Through  no  other  channel  can  the  technical  skill  for 
this  work  be  acquired  at  once  so  economically  and  so  effec- 
tively. To  insure  attracting  theright  kindof  material  radically 
liberal  terms  of  apprenticeship  are  necessary.  On  such  a  basis 
arrangements  for  instruction  of  apprentices  in  drawing,  ren- 
dering and  color  in  an  art  school  for  a  number  of  hours  a  week 
during  the  regular  working  day  would  seem  to  promise  the 
most  practical  measure  for  developing  some  of  the  talent 
needed  in  this  industry. 

In  addition,  there  is  a  strong  probability  that  some  able 
students  would  be  attracted  into  this  field  if  the  opportunities 
presented  and  the  nature  and  requirements  of  the  work  were 
set  forth  in  our  schools  of  art.  To  effect  this  result,  active 
cooperative  measures  such  as  those  already  undertaken  by 
the  National  Association  of  the  Employing  Lithographers 
would  seem  to  promise  effective  returns. 


ADDENDA 

Opinions  of  Commercial  Illustrators  as  to  Training  Needed 
in  this  Field. 

Drawing,  painting,  composition  and  some  study  of  repro- 
duction and  advertising  should  be  taught.  The  foundation  of 
art  is  imagination.  You  cannot  teach  it.  But  you  can  develop 
it.  If  the  pupil  has  talent,  the  best  examples  of  works  of  art 
obtainable  should  be  set  in  front  of  him.  He  should  study 
them,  absorb  them,  live  in  them,  scribble  composition  after 
composition,  make  rough  sketches  illustrating  passages  of 
books  he  has  read.  If  he  is  interested  in  pen  and  ink,  show 
him  examples  of  the  masters  of  it — ^\'^ierge,  Rice,  Abbey,  etc. 
Same  thing  with  wash  or  oils.  The  basis  of  all  learning  is  imi- 
tation ;  let  him  imitate  the  best  —  he  can  do  much  worse.  Do 
not  worry  about  style,  originality  or  individuality.  If  he  has 
any  it  will  always  come  out. 

First  of  all,  the  standard  of  teachers  is  extremely  low  — 
generally  a  teacher  of  illustration  is  distinctly  second  rate, 
unsuccessful  and  weak,  in  every  school  of  which  I  have  knowl- 
edge. The  most  brilliant,  successful  and  vital  artists,  the  most 
successful  ones,  should  be  urged  to  teach,  not  just  one  teacher 
who  quickly  becomes  fagged  and  bored  with  the  routine,  but 
say  four  artists  of  splendid  reputation — each  to  give  one 
criticism  and  problem  a  week.  The  study  of  design  is  of  the 
highest  importance — see  the  beautiful  designs  of  the  whole 
world,  from  Czecho-Slovak  embroideries  to  Persian  minia- 
tures, from  Louis  XIV  inlaid  tables  to  Chinese  wall  panels — 
to  develop  a  faultless  taste  and  cultivate  the  imagination.  It 
is  extremely  important  to  an  artist  to  cultivate  the  visual 
memory  by  various  simple  and  amusing  exercises,  action 
sketching,  memory  poses,  looking  at  many  things  for  a  min- 
ute or  two  and  mentally  photographing  them.  The  processes 
of  reproduction  of  works  of  art  should  be  studied,  and  the 
original  drawings  of  the  best  illustrators.  There  should  be 


PRINTING  247 

exercises  to  develop  perfection  or  daintiness.  Beautiful  finish, 
unusual  and  charming  and  individual  technique  should  be 
encouraged  in  every  way.  If  fashion  art  work  is  done,  the 
most  important  quality  is  the  appearance  of  good  breeding 
and  refinement  in  the  pose,  face,  structure  and  costume  of  the 
pictured  lady.  Artists  should  be  encouraged  to  go  to  the  Ritz 
for  luncheon  now  and  then  and  see  how  very  smart  women 
look,  also  to  the  opera.  I  do  not  like  in  this  day,  the  very  unnec- 
essary, slow,  careful,  painstaking  work  which  students  often 
have  to  do  at  first — large  charcoal  drawings  of  casts  and 
nudes,  spending  often  a  precious  month  on  these  and  develop- 
ing a  slow,  laborious  point  of  view  of  art — instead  of  wit, 
facility,  versatility. 

My  ideas  of  an  art  education  are  then : 

1 .  Cultivation  of  visual  memory. 

2.  Study  of  the  works  of  art  of  every  country  in  the  world — 
houses,  furniture,  pictures,  textiles,  costumes. 

3.  Better  art  teachers — young  and  successful. 

4.  Drawing  from  life — quick  studies. 

5.  Lectures  on  color,  composition,  design. 

6.  Much  practice  work  of  all  sorts  for  various  teachers  — 
speed  to  be  insisted  upon,  and  great  daintiness  and  delicacy 
and  refinement  and  facility  of  execution. 


An  artist  should  have  rather  a  clear  idea  of  history  through- 
out the  ages,  an  interest  in  the  sciences,  and  be  a  careful  stu- 
dent of  human  nature,  also  a  bit  of  a  philosopher.  In  fact,  the 
wider  and  more  comprehensive  his  scope  of  knowledge  is,  the 
better  his  chance  of  success. 


I  regard  an  academic  training  in  drawing,  painting  and 
composition  as  the  best  preparation  for  commercial  illustra- 
tion, with  all  possible  training  for  developing  a  refinement  of 
taste  in  the  student.  This  last  being,  to  me,  the  greatest  pres- 
ent need  of  commercial  art   ...   I  place  design  as  of  first 


248  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

importance,  for  the  very  simple  reason  that  it  underlies  all 
the  others,  and  is  the  very  basis  of  any  creation.  Drawing  and 
painting  of  course,  are  essential,  but  they  are  merely  the  tools; 
the  student  must  be  thoroughly  trained  in  their  use,  but 
should  always  have  kept  before  him  the  idea  that  they  are 
tools — instruments  to  an  end,  not  the  end  itself.  Technical 
facility  is  highly  desirable  of  course,  but  after  all,  the  history 
of  art  shows  plenty  of  great  achievement  by  means  of  a  me- 
diocre amount  of  pure  technique  .  .  .  The  artist  should  be 
trained  in  the  use  of  his  tools — drawing,  painting,  etc. — and  in 
applying  them  in  a  constructive  and  individual  way,  through 
the  study  and  use  of  design,  to  the  embodiment  of  various 
subjects  he  is  called  upon  to  handle.  Individuality  must  be 
encouraged  and  fostered,  but  at  the  same  time  steered  into  the 
paths  of  sincerity  and  good  taste. 

The  student  should  be  taught  the  rudiments  of  draftsman- 
ship and  the  development  thereof.  His  ambition  should  be  to 
become  an  Ingres  rather  than  a  commercial  artist.  Consider- 
able time  should  be  spent  in  drawing  from  memory,  as  this  is 
one  of  the  most  vital  points  in  commercial  art.  Emphasis 
should  be  placed  on  observance  of  details  and  every-day  con- 
ditions and  experiences.  Taste  should  be  cultivated,  as  it  is  the 
artist  who  shows  taste  in  his  work  who  succeeds  most  readily 
in  commercial  art.  Make  pencil  notes  continually  and  under 
every  condition.  I,  personally,  believe  composition  and  color 
are  products  of  the  artist's  own  conception  and  cannot  be 
taught.  The  student  should  acquaint  himself  with  the  copy  of 
current  advertisements.  I  should  advocate  a  class  in  advertis- 
ing copy  wherein  the  artist  would  write  his  own  copy  and  then 
illustrate  it,  as  advertisements  are  drawn  after  the  copy  policy 
has  been  determined.  If  possible,  a  series  of  lectures  should  be 
arranged  choosing  such  men  as  represent  the  biggest  minds 
in  advertising  and  advertising  art,  to  give  their  opinions. 


Illustration  by  George  Barbierfrom  an  advertising  brochure  of  a  perfumery  firm 


PRINTING  249 

The  school  instructors  of  illustration  are  more  often  artist 
painters;  their  teaching,  as  far  as  it  goes,  is  sound,  but  their 
ignorance  of  the  graphic  arts  is  profound.  Very  naturally 
they  are  not  interested  in  the  mechanical  side  of  art.  Engrav- 
ing, lithographing,  paper,  ink,  advertising,  etc.,  are  all  closed 
books  to  them.  But  as  the  majority  of  art  students  are  obliged 
to  make  their  own  way  upon  graduation,  they  naturally  grav- 
itate to  commercial  art,  and  without  any  knowledge  of  the 
mechanics  of  reproduction  they  flounder  for  a  period;  some 
eventually  learning  the  rudiments  of  reproduction  but  many 
becoming  discouraged  and  giving  up.  The  commercial  de- 
signer, like  the  illustrator,  should  understand  the  mechanical 
processes,  and  he  should  know  period  decoration  and  letter- 
ing. I  cannot  make  the  point  on  lettering  too  strong.  The 
schools  in  a  weak  way  try  to  teach  lettering,  but  the  effort 
and  result  are  pitiable.  Very  few  teachers  understand  the  art 
and  to  most  students  lettering  is  dry  and  uninteresting;  but 
as  nearly  every  commercial  design  contains  lettering,  it  seems 
strange  that  so  little  thought  has  been  given  the  subject. 

During  all  the  fundamental  teaching  in  drawing,  painting, 
composition  and  design,  some  time  should  be  found  to  teach 
the  things  that  an  art  concern,  an  advertising  agency,  a 
lithograph  company  or  an  engraving  house  would  require  in  a 
beginner.  Just  ordinary  paintings  and  drawings  are  not  enough. 
They  are  not  enough  unless  they  have  certain  other  elements. 
They  must  be  workmanlike,  which  means  neatness,  complete- 
ness and  to  a  particular  purpose.  If  there  is  a  novel  idea,  so 
much  the  better.  Drawings  with  good  lettering  at  once  sug- 
gest that  the  beginner  can  be  of  use  during  his  training  period. 
And  so,  if  I  were  starting  over,  this  would  be  my  choice:  draw- 
ing as  soon  as  possible  from  life.  Painting,  in  all  mediums,  and 
after  the  first  year,  in  whichever  one  the  student  choses.  Com- 
position, lots  of  it  and  with  all  possible  encouragement  for 
the  unusual.  Design,  which  should  include  a  great  amount  of 
lettering. 

****** 


250  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

I  would  suggest  that  the  student  first  go  through  a  thor- 
ough course  of  draftsmanship,  learning  the  fundamental  con- 
struction of  every  object  thoroughly  by  applying  a  memory 
test  to  everything  undertaken — not  for  the  instructor's  ben- 
efit, but  for  his  own  benefit,  to  be  used  later  on  where  without 
material  or  data  on  hand  his  memory  of  objects  and  scenes 
has  been  so  well  trained  that  he  can  visualize  and  then  con- 
struct. Under  the  title  Drawing  should  come  block  construc- 
tion, figure  construction,  anatomy  construction,  perspective, 
plus  memory  training.  The  student  taking  up  illustration 
should  have  a  course  in  the  theory  of  advertising,  from  the 
experience  and  knowledge  of  a  practical  advertising  agency. 
This  naturally  is  an  after  training  to  a  student  who  has  learned 
his  trade.  The  process  of  reproduction  comes  last,  because  he 
can  adjust  his  mediums  and  designs,  after  learning  them 
thoroughly,  to  mechanical  processes.  The  most  important 
training  after  the  foregoing  is  to  teach  the  student  to  think 
for  himself,  meaning  thereby  to  originate.  To  do  this,  he 
should  study  the  best  that  has  been  produced  in  illustration, 
painting  and  advertising.  Not  to  copy  for  the  sake  of  imita- 
tion, but  for  the  knowledge  to  develop  taste  for  the  best. 


SCHOOLS  OF  APPLIED  ART 
IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 

A  list  of  all  schools  of  art  in  the  United  States,  totaling  274, 
is  given  in  the  American  Art  Annual  for  1921.  Fifty-eight 
schools  selected  as  representative  of  various  types  of  work 
related  to  the  field  of  the  survey  were  studied  through  per- 
sonal visits  of  representatives  of  the  staff. 

Some  thirty  schools,  noteworthy  for  their  reputation  and 
scope  or  for  the  special  nature  of  the  work  presented,  have 
been  selected  for  brief  descriptive  notices.  Collectively  these 
schools  represent  by  far  the  major  part  of  serious  instruction 
in  applied  art  in  the  United  States.  It  should  not  be  assumed, 
however,  that  creditable  work  is  not  being  done  in  institu- 
tions other  than  those  described.  In  a  number  of  schools  out- 
side of  this  group,  thoroughly  sound  instruction  leading  to 
practical  capacity  in  design  is  undoubtedly  being  given. 

No  attempt  to  evaluate  the  quality  of  work  performed  in 
these  schools  has  been  made.  Such  evaluation  would  not  seem 
to  be  needed  for  the  purposes  of  this  report  and  the  Survey 
was  not  organized  with  the  object  of  making  authoritative 
judgments  concerning  the  work  of  the  schools. 

The  schools  in  this  group  may  be  classified  either  as  to  the 
form  of  organization  and  support  or  by  reference  to  the  sub- 
jects taught.  The  Survey  has  adopted  the  first  method  as 
regards  those  schools  affording  instruction  in  a  number  of 
subjects,  grouping  special  schools  devoted  to  one  particular 
branch  under  the  subjects  of  instruction. 

The  classification  adopted,  while  not  at  once  indicative  of 
the  quality  of  work  represented,  portrays  more  or  less  the 
scope  and  character  of  the  different  schools.  For  example, 
instruction  in  the  college  group  as  a  rule  has  a  distinctly  cul- 
tural basis  and  comprehends  but  a  small  amount  of  work  in 
applied  design.  The  courses  in  art  departments  connected 
with  art  museums,  with  one  notable  exception,  incline  toward 


252  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

the  fine  arts.  With  few  exceptions  work  under  state  or  munic- 
ipal control,  as  far  as  day  courses  are  concerned,  represents 
departmental  instruction  in  high-schools.  It  is,  consequently, 
mainly  in  the  endowed  schools  and  those  conducted  as  private 
enterprises  that  practical  specialization  in  applied  art  is  to 
be  found. 

A  chart  is  also  given  analyzing  the  subjects  of  instruction 
as  specified  in  the  catalogues  of  the  fifty-eight  important 
schools.  In  considering  the  chart  it  should  be  borne  in  mind 
that  the  mere  statement  of  a  course  in  the  catalogue  has  very 
little  bearing  upon  its  extent  and  character.  For  example,  a 
school  that  may  be  doing  very  creditable  work  in  applied  de- 
sign modestly  notes  a  single  course  in  this  subject.  Another 
school,  of  much  smaller  scope,  may  list  its  work  in  applied 
design  under  such  headings  as  costume  design,  textile  design, 
ceramic  design,  or  jewelry  design,  indicating  merely  that  a 
student  is  afforded  an  opportunity  to  specialize  in  one  of  these. 

Fourteen  subjects  are  listed  on  the  chart.  One  of  these, 
applied  design,  is  indefinite,  but  is  a  term  made  much  use  of 
in  catalogues.  The  subjects,  arranged  in  the  order  of  the 
number  of  times  scheduled  are  as  follows: 

Costume  Design 34 

Interior  Decoration ^3 

Commercial  Illustration 31 

Applied  Design 28 

Textile  Design 22 

Ceramic  Design 16 

Jewelry  Design 14 

Metal  Design 7 

Furniture  Design 5 

Scenic  Design 5 

Lithography 4 

Printing  Design 4 

Wall  Paper  Design 2 

It  is''evident  that  a  comparatively  small  percenatge  of  the 
courses  in  applied  art  listed  in  school  catalogues  can  be  con- 


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SCHOOLS  OF  APPLIED  ART  IN  THE  U.  S.      253 

sidered  as  offering  practical  and  intensive  instruction.  Sub- 
jects like  textile  design,  ceramic  design,  jewelry  design  and 
furniture  design  offered  in  many  schools  throughout  the 
country  apart  from  large  centers  of  design  or  manufacture 
must  obviously  have  little  outcome  other  than  handicraft 
design. 

The  personal  studies  conducted  by  the  Survey  corroborate 
this  statement  and  indicate  that  serious  and  thorough  in- 
struction in  applied  design  which  functions  in  the  training  of 
practical  designers  is  afforded  by  very  few  schools  in  the 
United  States. 


ENDOWED  SCHOOLS 

MARYLAND  INSTITUTE 

Baltimore,  Maryland 

The  School  of  Fine  and  Practical  Arts,  founded  in  1 847,  is 
part  of  the  Maryland  Institute,  which  is  a  private  institution 
controlled  by  a  board  of  managers  and  supported  by  endow- 
ments, by  city  and  state  appropriations,  and  by  tuition  fees. 
One  hundred  and  eight  state  scholarships  are  awarded,  one  of 
which  is  awarded  by  each  state  senator  subject  to  the  ap- 
proval of  the  local  county  school  board.  One  hundred  and 
fifty-six  scholarships,  provided  by  the  city,  are  awarded  by 
the  mayor  and  city  council.  Appointments  for  such  scholar- 
ships are  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  school. 

There  are  no  entrance  requirements  other  than  a  minimum 
age  requirement  of  seventeen  years.  The  fee  is  I50  a  year  for 
day  sessions  and  $8  for  the  evening  session. 

The  industrial  art  classes  include  General  Design,  Advertis- 
ing Design,  Costume  Design,  Interior  Decoration,  Jewelry  and 
Textile  Design.  These  are  all  three-year  courses. 

All  students  pursue  a  general  design  course  the  first  year, 
including  drawing,  design,  color  and  modeling.  The  students 
specialize  in  the  last  two  years. 

Jewelry  and  Silver  smithing — Designing,  making  of  wax 
models  and  the  execution  of  the  designs  in  metal. 

'Textile  Decoration — Designing  and  execution  of  batik, 
stencils,  block  prints  and  embroideries. 

Leather — Designing  and  execution  of  leather  work. 

Modeling — Ornamental  and  figure  modeling. 

Interior  Decoration — Design,  cast  drawing,  perspective, 
anatomy,  composition,  history  of  art,  illustration  or  drawing 
from  costume  model. 

Costume  Design — Design,  costume  design,  life  drawing, 
history  of  art. 

Four-year  evening  courses  are  offered  in  Costume  Design, 
Lettering,  Poster  Work,  Show-card  Writing  and  Illustration. 


iS(>  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

Craft  work  is  performed  in  the  industrial  art  courses. 
There  is  no  organized  method  of  selling  school  work. 

Of  the  twenty-two  instructors  in  the  School  of  Fine  and 
Practical  Arts,  eleven  teach  industrial  art  subjects.  Only  a 
few  have  had  experience  in  the  fields  in  which  they  instruct. 

There  is  no  cooperation  with  individuals  or  advisory  com- 
mittees from  the  trades. 

In  1921-22  the  average  number  of  students  in  the  day 
industrial  art  courses  was  150. 

PRATT  INSTITUTE 

Brooklyn,  New  York 

The  Pratt  Institute  School  of  Fine  and  Applied  Arts  is  a 
department  of  the  institute  for  the  training  of  teachers  and 
professional  workers  in  arts  and  crafts.  Tuition  fees  of  $icxd 
per  year  are  charged.  Students,  seventeen  years  or  over,  are 
admitted  to  all  courses  only  on  advanced  standing  in  drawing 
equivalent  to  at  least  one  or  two  years  of  training. 

The  following  industrial  art  courses  are  given :  Commercial 
Illustration;  Costume  Illustration;  Applied  Design  and  In- 
terior Decoration;  Applied  Design  and  Crafts;  Jewelry  and 
Silversmi  thing. 

Applied  Design  and  Interior  Decoration — ^Two  year  course. 
Firstyear:  General  free-hand  drawing, ornament, principles  of 
design,  modeling,  instrumental  drawing  and  interior  archi- 
tecture, color  and  the  rendering  of  textiles  and  simple  in- 
teriors. The  second  year  is  devoted  to  more  elaborate  prob- 
lems in  design  and  to  period  interior  decoration  and  furniture 
design,  rendering  in  color,  and  to  study  of  textiles  and  draping. 

Applied  Design  and  Crafts — ^Two-year  course.  The  first  year 
and  part  of  the  second  year  the  same  as  the  Interior  Decora- 
tion course,  with  much  time  in  the  second  year  devoted  to 
textile  design,  block  printing,  batik,  wood-carving,  jewelry 
and  metal  work. 

Jewelry — ^Three-year  course.  Drawing,  modeling,  designing 
and  executing  of  practical  jewelry,  also  silversmithing. 


SCHOOLS  OF  APPLIED  ART  IN  THE  U.  S.       257 

Commercial  Illustration — ^Three-  and  four-year  course.  Gen- 
eral drawing,  life  drawing,  painting,  design,  commercial  com- 
position, lettering  and  advertising  design. 

Costume  Illustration — ^Three-year  course.  General  drawing, 
color,  life  drawing,  painting,  designing,  pattern  drafting  and 
costume  illustration  and  designing. 

Evening  classes  are  maintained  for  three  nights  a  week 
for  twenty-four  weeks  ;  three  years.  The  evening  classes  in 
industrial  art  comprise  commercial  illustration,  jewelry  and 
silversmithing,  design  and  interior  decoration,  color  and 
draping.  The  tuition  fees  are  $15  and  $10. 

Of  the  forty-four  instructors  and  assistants  connected  with 
the  school,  eight  give  approximately  full-time  instruction  and 
twenty-two  part-time  instruction  in  the  industrial  arts 
courses.  Twenty  of  these  instructors  have  had  practical  ex- 
perience in  the  fields  in  which  they  teach,  and  fourteen  main- 
tain some  form  of  practical  trade  relations  at  the  present  time. 

Craft  work  is  performed  in  textiles,  woodwork,  metal,  jew- 
elry and  pottery. 

There  is  no  direct  cooperation  with  committees  from  the 
trade. 

The  average  number  entering  and  graduating  from  the 
industrial  art  courses  in  the  last  five  years  is  as  follows:  Ap- 
plied Design  and  Crafts,  entering  class,  25,  graduating  class, 
14;  Applied  Design  and  Crafts,  entering  class,  10,  graduating 
class,  6;  Jewelry,  Silversmithing  and  the  Crafts,  entering 
class,  15,  graduating  class,  4;  General  Course  (which  includes 
work  in  Costume  Illustration),  entering  class,  105,  graduating 
class,  38. 

The  School  of  Household  Science  and  Arts  maintains  trade 
classes  in  Costume  Design,  Millinery,  Trade  Dressmaking, 
Pattern  Making  and  Draping. 

Costume  Design  Class — Nine  months,  five  days  a  week.  Fee 
$103.  Applicants  must  be  eighteen  years  old  and  show  ex- 
amples of  their  work  in  dressmaking.  The  course  includes 
sketching,  draping,  cutting,  fitting,  finishing,  workroom 
management,  color  harmony  and  historic  research. 


258  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

Millinery — Six  months,  five  days  a  week.  Fee  $75.  Appli- 
cants must  be  seventeen  years  old  and  pass  an  examination 
in  sewing.  The  course  includes  preparing,  making,  copying, 
trimming  and  designing. 

Pattern  Making  and  Draping — Three  months,  five  days  a 
week.  Fee  $35.  A  course  primarily  for  finishers  in  establish- 
ments, who  wish  to  make  patterns  and  copy  models. 

'Trade  Dressmaking — Nine-month  course,  five  days  a  week. 
Applicants  must  show  examplesoftheirworktoenter class  and 
take  an  examination.  The  course  includes  drafting,  blocking, 
draping,  cutting,  fitting  and  finishing,  making  various  types 
of  gowns,  tailoring,  power-machine  operating,  shop  practice, 
color  and  material  combining  and  embroidery. 

There  are  also  night  and  part-time  classes  in  dressmaking, 
draping  and  millinery.  Of  the  twenty-five  instructors  in  these 
classes,  twenty  have  had  trade  experience.  The  day  enroll- 
ment in  1921-22  was  140  students  and  in  the  night  classes 
286.  The  department  has  no  advisory  board  but  maintains 
touch  with  trade  conditions. 

CLEVELAND  SCHOOL  OF  ART 
Cleveland,  Ohio 

This  school  is  in  charge  of  a  Board  of  Trustees  chosen  from 
among  the  citizens  of  Cleveland.  It  is  supervised  by  an  Advi- 
sory Board  representing  the  cultural  and  industrial  interests 
of  the  city. 

The  tuition  fees  range  from  ^15  per  month  to  $200  per  year. 

Students  must  be  over  seventeen  years  of  age  to  be  ad- 
mitted to  the  regular  day  courses. 

The  following  industrial  art  courses  are  ofl^ered:  Decorative 
Design,  Ceramic  Art,  Jewelry  and  Silversmi thing.  Interior 
Decoration,  Costume  Design,  Commercial  Art. 

All  beginning  students  pursue  a  general  course  including 
free-hand  and  mechanical  drawing,  drawing  from  nature  and 
life,  modeling,  illustration,  decorative  and  structural  design- 
ing, coloring,  and  making  in  various  mediums.  This  work  is 
planned  to  cover  a  period  of  two  years,  but  may  be  completed 


SCHOOLS  OF  APPLIED  ART  IN  THE  U.  S.       259 

in  one  year.  At  the  completion  of  this  course  the  student  is 
allowed  to  specialize  to  a  considerable  extent  in  one  subject. 

A  graduate  school  was  established  in  September,  191 9,  on 
the  plan  that  graduate  students  should  perform  work  of 
professional  character  contracted  for  by  the  school  and  that 
in  return  ten  per  cent,  of  their  earnings  should  be  retained  by 
the  school  as  a  promotion  fund. 

The  specialized  work  in  the  industrial  art  courses  includes 
the  following: 

Decorative  Design — Interior  decoration,  life  drawing,  anat- 
omy, architectural  modeling,  commercial  illustration,  design 
involving  construction. 

Ceramic  Art — Decorative  design  and  the  technique  of 
ceramic  decoration;  textile  design;  drawing  from  nature,  in- 
cluding animal  forms  and  the  figure;  interior  decoration;  re- 
search work  at  the  Cleveland  Museum  of  Art  and  technical 
training  at  a  Cleveland  pottery. 

Jewelry  and  Silversmithing — Designing  and  making  of 
jewelry  and  articles  in  copper  and  brass,  as  well  as  in  silver. 

Interior  Decoration — Study  and  application  of  the  prin- 
ciples of  design  and  color  as  related  to  architectural  interiors, 
arranging  display  rooms  in  the  larger  stores,  home  furnishing, 
historic-period  decoration,  research  work  in  the  Museum  and 
elsewhere,'  rendering. 

Costume  Design — ^This  course  requires  an  experimental 
knowledge  of  tailoring,  and  a  study  of  the  history  of  costume 
and  costume  materials.  The  course  aims  to  train  designers 
and  makers  of  clothing,  teachers  of  costume,  and  workers  in 
the  field  of  costume  illustration. 

Commercial  Art — Pictorial  and  commercial  illustrations; 
design  for  printing  in  one,  two  or  three  colors  for  reproduc- 
tion in  silhouette,  line,  or  Ben  Day  plates;  drawing  from  life; 
modeling.  There  are  also  courses  in  cartooning  and  news- 
paper illustrating,  commercial  design,  and  illustration. 

The  courses  of  the  evening  school  change  from  year  to 
year  to  meet  the  varying  needs  of  classes.  The  only  applied 
art  course  offered  regularly  is  one  in  jewelry  and  silversmith- 


26o  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

ing,  but  provisions  are  made  for  individual  instruction  in  such 
subjects  as  the  students  may  elect. 

There  are  thirteen  teachers  in  the  industrial  art  courses. 
Seven  of  them  have  trade  connections,  including  the  sculp- 
tors. 

There  is  craft  work  in  connection  with  the  work  in  the  de- 
sign class.  An  arts  and  crafts  society  sells  the  students'  craft 
work  in  a  shop.  Every  attempt  is  made  by  the  school  to 
cooperate  with  the  trade.  Work  of  a  professional  nature  is 
obtained  by  the  school  for  the  students  in  the  graduate  class. 

In  1921-22  there  was  an  average  of  374  students  in  the  in- 
dustrial art  courses  of  the  day  school  and  192  in  the  evening 
classes.  Diplomas  were  awarded  in  1921  to  30  graduates  from 
industrial  art  courses. 

WOMAN'S  ART  SCHOOL— COOPER  UNION 
New  York  City 

Cooper  Union  is  an  institution  offering  free  instruction, 
comprising  a  number  of  departments  or  schools  under  the 
control  of  a  Board  of  Trustees.  The  executive  head  is  a  director 
appointed  by  the  board.  Among  the  departments  are  the 
Woman's  Art  School  and  the  Night  Art  School.  The  Woman's 
Art  School  is  maintained  for  the  purpose  of  enabling  young 
women  who  expect  to  be  dependent  upon  their  owA  exertions 
for  gaining  a  livelihood,  to  obtain,  free  of  cost,  a  training 
that  will  fit  them  for  useful  activity  in  art  work  of  one  form 
or  another. 

A  Ladies'  Advisory  Council  is  associated  in  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  school. 

A  preparatory  course  of  three  years  in  free-hand  drawing 
is  required,  as  a  whole  or  in  part,  as  a  basis  for  specialized 
work  in  applied  art.  The  applied  art  courses  offered  are  as 
follows: 

Illustration — ^Two  years.  Drawing  from  the  human  figure, 
costume  and  accessories  in  the  various  media  used  in  drawing 
for  publication;  pictorial  composition. 

Decorative  Design — ^Two  years.  Elements  of  design,  historic 


SCHOOLS  OF  APPLIED  ART  IN  THE  U.  S.      261 

motives,  application  of  principles  to  original  designs  of  rugs, 
textiles,  stained  glass,  jewelry,  etc.,  study  of  historic  orna- 
ment, technical  painting  in  water-color,  specialization  in 
various  branches  of  design,  painting  in  oil  of  panels,  screens 
and  of  ornament  in  general. 

Interior  Decoration — ^Three  years.  Plans  and  elevations  of 
interiors  in  various  styles  with  furniture,  hangings,  etc.,  pe- 
culiar to  each  period;  painting  in  water-color  of  ornaments, 
decorative  panels,  screens,  etc.;  architectural  drawing  (plans 
and  sections  of  doors,  windows,  fireplaces,  etc.)  drawing  and 
rendering  of  interiors  in  perspective;  original  designs  of  deco- 
rative subjects  fully  executed  in  oil  color;  original  designs  of 
tablets,  wall  fountains,  mantels  and  overmantels,  etc. 

Design  Applied  to  Advertising  and  General  Business  Pur- 
poses— ^Three  years.  Principles  of  design,  study  of  natural  and 
other  forms  and  their  decorative  treatment;  special  and  prac- 
tical application  to  book  and  advertising  design;  lettering; 
use  of  color;  studies  from  the  living  figure  with  application 
to  poster  and  other  forms  of  advertising;  study  and  use  of 
reproductive  processes. 

Costume  Design  and  Illustration — Two  years.  Drawing  and 
sketching  the  human  figure  in  action,  proportion  and  details, 
also  from  garments  and  drapery;  historic  costume;  color 
theory;  dressmakers'  sketches;  drawing  for  publication  in 
pencil,  pen-and-ink,  wash,  color,  etc.;  composition  and  group- 
ing of  figures;  general  preparation  for  practical  work. 

Most  of  the  instructors  devote  part  time  to  teaching  in  the 
school.  Seven  of  these  are  painters,  one  a  sculptor,  one  an 
architect,  one  a  decorative  designer  and  one  a  costume  de- 
signer. 

For  a  number  of  years  a  commercial  studio  called  Panier 
Fleuri  was  maintained  by  members  of  the  Advisory  Council. 
Graduates  of  the  course  in  decorative  design  were  admitted 
to  the  studio,  where  they  received  moderate  wages  while 
serving  a  practical  apprenticeship  in  commercial  decoration 
and  design. 

For  the  last  five  years  the  average  total  enrollment  in  the 


262  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

various  courses  of  the  Woman's  Art  School  was  322,  distrib- 
uted as  follows:  preparatory  course,  120,  antique  class,  50; 
life  class,  40;  illustration,  17;  decorative  design  and  interior 
decoration,  60;  fashion,  ^^.  The  average  number  of  graduates 
was  fifteen. 

The  Night  School  of  Art  is  composed  of  four  departments; 
Free-hand  Drawing,  Decorative  Arts,  Modeling,  Architec- 
tural Drawing. 

The  courses  offered  in  the  Decorative  Art  Department  are 
decorative  design,  design  applied  to  the  printing  arts;  ad- 
vertising and  poster  design,  interior  decoration,  costume  de- 
sign and  illustration,  decorative  and  pictorial  composition 
and  illustration,  furniture  design.  Work  in  modeling  affords 
instruction  both  for  industrial  workers  and  for  intending 
sculptors. 

Applicants  under  sixteen  years  of  age  are  not  admitted  to 
either  school.  In  the  case  of  the  Night  School  preference  is 
given  to  candidates  who  are  engaged  in  occupations  directly 
related  to  the  instruction  offered  by  the  classes. 

There  is  no  craft  work  in  connection  with  the  instruction 
and  no  designs  are  sold  by  the  school. 

A  Museum  of  the  Arts  of  Decoration  with  a  large  collection 
of  casts  and  original  examples  of  decorative  work,  arranged 
chronologically,  as  well  as  an  important  reference  library,  are 
at  the  service  of  students  in  both  schools. 

SCHOOL  OF  APPLIED  DESIGN  FOR  WOMEN 

New  York  City* 

The  New  York  School  of  Applied  Design  for  Women  is 
administered  by  a  life  Board  of  Trustees  including  the  Mayor 
of  the  City,  the  Bishop  of  the  Episcopal  Diocese  of  the  City 
of  New  York,  the  President  of  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of 
Art,  and  six  others,  and  a  Board  of  Managers  of  fifteen  mem- 
bers. The  object  of  the  school  is  to  afford  to  women  practical 
instruction  which  will  enable  them  to  earn  a  livelihood  by  the 

*This  school  at  present  has  no  endowment  but  is  organized  and  conducted  much  on 
the  basis  of  an  endowed  school. 


SCHOOLS  OF  APPLIED  ART  IN  THE  U.  S.       263 

application  of  ornamental  design  to  manufacture  and  the 
numerous  arts  and  crafts.  The  tuition  fees  for  the  regular 
courses  are  $105  for  the  year  of  three  terms.  The  fees  for  the 
applied  art  and  special  courses  range  from  $15  to  $^^  per 
term. 

The  instruction  is  planned  to  cover  a  two-year  period,  ex- 
cept in  the  Architectural  Department  where  the  course  is 
organized  on  a  three-year  basis.  The  plan  of  instruction  em- 
braces an  elementary  and  an  advanced  department.  The 
student  is  allowed  to  pass  from  one  department  to  the  other 
whenever  her  attainment  justifies  the  promotion.  The  ele- 
mentary department  includes  object  and  cast  drawing, 
flower  drawing  and  painting,  antique,  elementary  and  ad- 
vanced design,  perspective,  elementary  historic  design.  The 
advanced  department  deals  with  the  following  courses:  the 
application  of  design  to  the  manufacture  of  textiles,  the  ap- 
plication of  the  elementary  instruction  to  the  work  of  an 
architect's  draughtsman  and  interior  decoration  and  the  ap- 
plication of  the  elementary  instruction  to  illustration.  There 
are  also  special  courses  in  poster  design  and  advanced  com- 
mercial art,  design,  historic  ornament,  and  fashion  illustra- 
tion. Much  stress  is  placed  on  the  study  of  historic  periods. 
Individuality  in  work  is  encouraged. 

No  applicants  are  admitted  below  the  age  of  sixteen.  Ex- 
aminations are  not  required  for  entrance  into  the  elementary 
course. 

There  are  nine  instructors,  all  of  whom  are  engaged  in 
practical  work  in  the  different  branches  in  which  they  teach. 
There  are  no  advisory  committees  from  the  trades. 

There  is  no  craft  work  in  connection  with  the  courses.  There 
is  a  Bureau  of  Sales  and  Positions  which  assists  the  students 
in  the  sale  of  their  designs  executed  during  the  term  of  study. 
This  bureau,  which  was  established  in  January,  191 9,  also 
places  students  in  paying  positions  as  soon  as  they  are  quali- 
fied to  fill  them.  A  printed  list  of  firms  employing  or  who  have 
employed  students  of  the  school  shows  24  rug  firms,  12  wall 
paper,  47  textile,  47  architecture  and  interior  decoration,  47 


264  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

publishers  and  advertisers,  9  jewelers,  23  fashions,  29  em- 
broidery, 1 4  lamp  shade  and  furniture  painting,  and  60 
other  firms.  It  is  claimed  that  85  per  cent,  of  the  students 
enter  actual  professional  work. 

In  1921-22  there  were  92  in  the  industrial  art  classes.  Certi- 
ficates were  awarded  to  15  students  who  had  studied  in  the 
industrial  art  courses. 

PENNSYLVANIA  MUSEUM  AND  SCHOOL  OF 
INDUSTRIAL  ART 

Philadelphia,  Pa. 

This  institution,  founded  in  1876,  aims  to  train  workers  in 
design  and  its  practical  applications.  The  Museum  and  School 
are  governed  by  a  Board  of  Trustees  consisting  of  the  Gover- 
nor of  the  State,  the  Mayor  of  the  City,  one  member  appoint- 
ed by  each  of  the  following:  the  State  Senate,  the  House  of 
Representatives,  the  City  Council,  and  the  Commissioners  of 
Fairmount  Park,  and  seventeen  other  members  elected  by  the 
corporation  consisting  of  the  subscribers  to  the  work  of  the 
school.  There  are  an  Executive  Committee,  a  Committee  on 
the  Museum,  a  Committee  on  Instruction,  and  an  Associate 
Committee  of  Women. 

There  are  two  departments  in  the  school:  the  Department 
of  Industrial  Art  and  the  Textile  School.  The  School  is  in 
charge  of  a  principal  under  whom  is  a  director  of  the  textile 
department. 

A  tuition  fee  of  $100  a  year  is  charged  for  the  day  school 
and  ^20  for  the  night  school.  The  state  contributes  $56,250 
and  the  city  $30,000  toward  the  support  of  the  museum  and 
school.  The  state  funds  supply  one  or  more  free  scholarships 
for  each  senatorial  district  in  the  state.  The  Board  of  Edu- 
cation of  the  City  of  Philadelphia  also  furnishes  a  number  of 
free  scholarships.  Pupils  of  all  the  High-Schools,  the  Normal 
School,  and  the  Public  Industrial  Art  School  are  eligible 
for  these  appointments,  which  are  made  by  the  Board  on  the 
recommendation  of  the  principals  of  the  several  schools. 


SCHOOLS  OF  APPLIED  ART  IN  THE  U.  S.      265 

There  are  a  certain  number  of  additional  free  scholarships 
made  available  by  special  funds,  which  are  granted  for  meri- 
torious work  to  students  who  have  already  spent  at  least  one 
year  in  the  school. 

New  students  are  taken  on  sixty  days'  trial  and  must  be 
sixteen  years  old. 

The  industrial  art  courses  are:  Applied  Design,  Commercial 
Illustration,  Interior  Decoration,  Woodwork,  Carving  and 
Furniture,  Pottery,  Costume  Design  and  Metal  Work. 

All  first-year  students  receive  instruction  in  cast  drawing, 
principles  of  design,  color  theory,  modeling,  lettering  and 
mechanical  drawing.  Specialization  begins  in  the  second  year, 
but  all  students  study  cast  drawing,  anatomy,  nature  study, 
perspective,  modeling,  historic  ornament  and  research,  with 
special  work  in  the  following  courses: 

Design — Deals  with  principles  of  hand-wrought  and  printed 
design,  leading  later  to  the  technical  requirements  of  hand- 
and  machine-printed  all-over  patterns. 

Pottery — Includes  throwing,  glazing,  etc.,  supplemented 
by  museum  research. 

Modeling — Deals  with  architectural  ornament  and  orna- 
ment for  wood-carving  and  ironwork. 

Metal  and  Jewelry — ^A  practical  course  in  the  designing 
and  making  of  metal  work  and  jewelry. 

Interior  Decoration — ^The  special  problems  in  this  course 
are  shades  and  shadows,  lectures  on  architecture,  furniture 
design,  room  elevations  in  color,  leaded  glass  and  mural  de- 
sign. 

Wood-caroing  and  Furniture — Is  closely  associated  with 
modeling  and  interior  decoration.  Lectures  on  the  evolution 
of  furniture. 

Illustration — Includes  life  drawing,  composition,  commer- 
cial illustrating  and  lectures  on  theory  of  illustration. 

Costume  Design — Consists  of  drawing  from  the  costumed 
model,  cutting,  draping,  design  in  fabrics,  dressmaking,  and 
study  of  historic  styles  and  fashion  tendencies  and  factory 
methods. 


266  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

Industrial  art  classes  given  in  the  evening  are  lettering,  in- 
terior decoration,  general  design,  commercial  illustration, 
costume  design  and  making,  modeling,  wood-carving  and 
furniture  design,  and  wrought-iron  forging. 

There  are  fourteen  full-time  and  seventeen  part-time  in- 
structors in  the  industrial  art  courses.  Twenty-one  of  the 
instructors  have  had  practical  experience  and  sixteen  main- 
tain trade  relations  at  present. 

The  school  does  not  sell  students'  work. 

A  number  of  persons  engaged  in  the  art  industries  of  the 
city  visit  the  school  and  cooperate  in  an  advisory  capacity 
as  individuals  whenever  called  upon. 

In  1920-21,  there  were  625  students  in  the  day  classes  of 
the  Industrial  Art  School  and  384  in  the  evening  classes. 
Diplomas  were  awarded  to  42. 

The  Philadelphia  Textile  School  is  a  department  of  the 
Pennsylvania  Museum  and  School  of  Industrial  Art,  headed 
by  a  director.  The  school  possesses  an  extensive  equipment 
of  machinery  for  the  manufacture  of  yarns  and  for  weaving, 
finishing  and  dyeing. 

The  courses  provided  are  as  follows:  Regular  Textile 
Course — three  years;  Chemistry,  Dyeing  and  Printing  Course 
— three  years;  and  Courses  in  Cotton,  Wool  and  Worsted  and 
Silk  of  two  years  each.  A  course  in  Figured  Design  is  listed 
but  has  not  been  given  for  several  years  on  account  of  lack 
of  applications. 

The  admission  requirements  to  the  general  courses  are  a 
minimum  age  of  eighteen  years  and  graduation  from  an  ap- 
proved high-school.  The  fee  for  the  Regular  Textile  Course 
amounts  to  $290.  The  Textile  School  participates  in  the  schol- 
arship provisions  as  noted  under  the  School  of  Industrial  Art. 

The  Regular  Textile  Course  includes  the  following  sub- 
jects: First  year — ^Weave  formation,  analysis  and  structure 
of  fabrics,  free-hand  drawing,  design  development,  textile 
coloring,  warp  preparation  and  weaving,  figured  design, 
cotton  yarn  manufacture.  Second  year — Weave  formation, 
analysis  and  structure  of  fabrics,  figured  design  and  textile 


SCHOOLS  OF  APPLIED  ART  IN  THE  U.  S.       267 

coloring,  wool  and  worsted  yarn  manufacture,  warp  prepa- 
ration and  weaving,  chemistry,  dyeing  and  finishing.  Third 
year — ^Weave  formation,  analysis  and  structure  of  fabrics, 
cost-finding,  figured  design  and  textile  coloring,  yarn  manu- 
facture, warp  preparation  and  weaving,  chemistry,  dyeing 
and  finishing. 

Nine  hours  a  week  are  devoted  to  design  and  textile  color- 
ing in  the  first  year,  six  in  the  second  and  seven  in  the  third. 

A  number  of  prominent  textile  manufacturers  of  Philadel- 
phia cooperate  as  advisers  in  matters  pertaining  to  the  course 
of  study. 

Few  if  any  graduates  of  the  Textile  School  have  become 
designers.  This  is  in  part  due  to  the  fact  that  the  salaries 
paid  in  technical  positions  are  larger  than  those  paid  for  de- 
signers and  the  student  shapes  his  plans  and  course  of  study 
accordingly.  While  these  graduates  have  not  entered  design- 
ing rooms  they  have  in  considerable  numbers  become  tech- 
nical experts  in  mills,  where  they  have  had  much  to  do  with 
developing  weaves  for  new  fabrics. 

CARNEGIE  INSTITUTE  OF  TECHNOLOGY 
Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

Carnegie  Institute  was  founded  in  1900  by  Andrew  Carnegie. 
The  institution  is  endowed  and  is  governed  by  a  board  of 
trustees.  A numberof  schools anddepartmentsaremaintained. 

Tuition  is  I150  a  year.  A  high-school  education  is  required 
for  admission. 

The  industrial  art  subjects  taught  in  various  departments 
are  commercial  illustration,  costume  design,  textile  design, 
interior  decoration,  stage  design  and  printing. 

The  Illustration  Course  given  in  the  Department  of  Fine 
Arts  includes  drawing  and  painting  from  life,  still  life,  com- 
position, design,  modeling,  illustration,  lettering,  perspective, 
history  of  civilization,  history  of  art,  reproduction  processes, 
history  of  illustration,  history  of  costume,  legendary  art, 
French,  English,  history,  and  physical  training. 

Costume  design,  interior  decoration,  and  textile  design  are 


268  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

taught  in  the  Industrial  Art  School.  These  courses  include 
history  and  language  in  addition  to  the  subjects  related  to 
design. 

Stage  Design  is  taught  in  connection  with  the  School  of  the 
Drama. 

The  School  of  Printing,  a  department  of  the  College  of  In- 
dustries, maintains  a  four-year  course  planned  to  train  men 
for  executive  positions  in  the  printing  industry  and  leads  to 
the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Science  in  Printing.  Besides  Eng- 
lish, science,  mathematics,  accounting,  economics,  and  psy- 
chology, the  course  includes  sketching,  designing,  cylinder 
press  work,  machine  composition,  lettering,  binding,  shop 
organization,  imposition,  makeup,  photography,  presswork, 
salesmanship,  advertising,  banking,  estimating,  engraving 
and  typography. 

There  is  also  a  two-year  course  in  printing,  including  the 
following  subjects:  English,  mathematics,  physics,  hand 
and  machine  composition,  presswork,  chemistry,  civics  and 
current  events. 

RHODE  ISLAND  SCHOOL  OF  DESIGN 
Providence,  R.  I. 

This  school,  founded  in  1877,  is  governed  by  a  Board  of 
Trustees  consisting  of  twelve  regular  and  ten  ex-officio  mem- 
bers, including  the  Governor  of  the  State,  the  Mayor  of  the 
City,  andtwomembersof  the  State  Board  of  Education.  The 
Trustees  are  chosen  by  the  governing  members  of  the  corpor- 
ation who  in  turn  are  chosen  by  ballot  by  the  Board  of  Trus- 
tees upon  the  recommendation  of  the  Nominating  Committee. 
The  corporation  is  made  up  of  Annual  Governing  Members 
who  pay  dues  of  |io  a  year,  of  Governing  Members  for  Life, 
who  have  paid  ^100  at  one  time,  and  of  Annual  Members 
who  pay  I3  a  year.  There  are  an  executive,  a  museum,  a 
library,  a  finance,  a  nominating  and  an  auditing  committee. 

The  tuition  for  the  day  classes  is  I45  a  term  (half  the 
school  year) .  For  evening  classes  of  six  hours  a  week  the  tui- 
tion is  $10  a  term.  In  the  department  of  decorative  design 


SCHOOLS  OF  APPLIED  ART  IN  THE  U.  S.       269 

the  institution  receives  the  benefit  of  the  following  scholar- 
ships: sixteen  day  scholarships  of  $45  each  and  twenty-one 
scholarships  of  $10  for  evening  students,  from  the  state;  and 
five  scholarships  of  $10  each,  for  evening  students,  from  the 
city;  and  sixteen  scholarships  of  ^10  each,  for  evening  students, 
provided  by  employers. 

The  following  applied  art  courses  are  oflfered:  Decorative 
Design,  Interior  Decoration,  Textile  Design,  Illustration, 
Jewelry  and  Silversmithing. 

Decorative  Design — Four  years.  Cast  and  life  drawing, 
still  life,  mechanical  drawing,  perspective,  modeling,  design 
and  color  theory,  analysis  of  natural  and  historic  forms,  pic- 
torial composition,  historic  ornament  and  history  of  art. 

Interior  Decoration — Four  years.  A  course  containing  ele- 
ments from  both  the  architectural  and  design  courses  and 
in  addition  problems  in  interior  design  and  rendering.  After 
the  first  year  the  work  consists  largely  of  original  problems 
fully  drawn  and  rendered.  The  museum  in  connection  with 
the  school  contains  a  fine  collection  of  Georgian  furniture 
from  which  the  students  are  allowed  to  make  studies. 

Textile  Design — ^Three  years.  Weave  formation;  fabric 
analysis  and  construction;  warp  preparation;  weaving;  color 
and  design;  drawing;  chemistry;  yarn  manufacture,  dyeing; 
Jacquard  design  and  warp  preparation  and  weaving.  The  in- 
struction is  adapted  as  far  as  possible  to  the  special  require- 
ments of  the  textile  industry  of  Rhode  Island. 

In  the  course  in  Jacquard  design,  instruction  is  given  in  the 
principles  of  the  ordinary  harness  ties;  planning  of  designs 
for  single  fabrics,  proportion  and  color,  texture,  laying  out; 
card  cutting;  card  lacing  and  weaving,  special  harness  ties; 
planning  of  designs  for  extra  warp,  extra  filling  and  double 
cloth;  cotton  blankets,  silk  draperies,  damasks,  narrow  fab- 
rics; etc.  The  course  in  color  and  design,  includes  instruc- 
tion in — decorative  pattern  construction  colors  and  their  re- 
lation to  one  another,  color  harmonies  and  contrasts;  analysis 
of  natural  and  historic  forms;  construction  of  motives  for 
textiles;  study  of  historic  textiles  problems  in  applied  design 


270  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

based  on  the  above  work,  with  special  reference  to  construc- 
tion for  the  loom. 

Illustration — Four  years:  Life  drawing,  painting  and  illus- 
trating. Problems  in  advertising  are  especially  dealt  with  in 
the  night  classes. 

Jewelry  and  Silversmithing — ^A  course  covering  the  princi- 
pal branches  of  the  jewelry  industry.  The  workshops  are 
equipped  with  power  appliances  and  general  shop  tools  pre- 
sented to  the  school  by  the  trade.  The  course  includes  free- 
hand drawing,  sketches  of  models,  ornament  and  designs  of 
jewelry,  principles  of  design,  modeling;  theory  of  color, 
rendering;  mathematics;  history  of  ornament,  nature  studies; 
composition;  practical  work  in  saw  piercing,  wire  bending, 
jewelry  making;  soldering  and  filling,  repousse,  enameling, 
engraving;  raising  and  hammering  metal  bodies. 

Similar  courses  are  offered  in  evening  classes. 

There  is  a  faculty  of  seven.  About  fifty  others  give  instruc- 
tion in  various  special  branches  or  deliver  lectures.  The 
majority  of  the  instructors  are  practical  workers  actively 
engaged  in  the  field  in  which  they  teach. 

Considerable  craft  work  is  done  in  the  textile  and  jewelry 
departments.  No  designs  or  craft  work  produced  in  the  school 
are  sold  by  the  institution. 

There  is  close  cooperation  with  the  jewelry  and  textile 
trade.  There  is  no  record  of  the  placement  of  the  graduates, 
but  the  majority  work  in  the  local  industries. 

SCHOOL  OF  APPLIED  AND  FINE  ARTS 
of  the 
ROCHESTER  ATHENAEUM  AND 
MECHANICS  INSTITUTE 

Rochester,  N.  Y. 

The  Rochester  Athenaeum  and  Mechanics  Institute  is  an 
endowed  institution  charging  tuition  fees  of  $200  per  year. 
The  school  is  administered  by  an  Executive  Committee  ap- 
pointed by  the  Board  of  Trustees.  The  members  of  the  Board 


SCHOOLS  OF  APPLIED  ART  IN  THE  U.  S.       271 

of  Trustees  are  elected  by  subscribing  members.  The  Presi- 
dent, or  executive  head  of  the  school,  is  a  member  of  the 
Executive  Committee. 

The  work  of  the  school  is  organized  under  four  depart- 
ments: the  School  of  Industrial  Arts,  the  School  of  Home 
Economics,  the  School  of  Applied  and  Fine  Arts,  and  the 
Evening  School. 

The  School  of  Applied  and  Fine  Arts  aims  to  develop  the 
appreciation  of  beauty,  and  to  teach  the  practical  application 
of  this  to  daily  living.  The  following  three-year  courses  in  in- 
dustrial art  subjects  areoffered  in  this  school:  Costume  Design, 
Design  and  Interior  Decoration,  Illustration  and  Advertising 
Art. 

Candidates  for  admission  must  be  in  good  health,  show 
satisfactory  evidence  of  good  character,  and  be  at  least  seven- 
teen years  of  age.  They  should  also  display  ability  and  interest 
in  art  or  craft  lines.  A  general  course  including  design  and 
color,  composition,  sketching,  perspective,  free-hand  draw- 
ing, clay  modeling,  history  of  architecture,  and  English,  is 
pursued  by  first-year  students  in  the  regular  courses. 

The  work  of  the  second  and  third  years  in  the  industrial 
art  courses  is  as  follows: 

Costume  Design — Design,  dressmaking,  study  of  textiles, 
history  of  costume,  drawing  and  water-color,  anatomy,  his- 
tory of  painting  and  sculpture,  historic  ornament,  English, 
sketching,  millinery,  pen  and  pencil  rendering,  weaving. 

Design  and  Interior  Decoration — Design,  lettering,  drawing 
and  water-color,  mechanical  drawing,  historic  ornament,  his- 
tory of  pain  ting  and  sculpture,  English,  painting,  illustration, 
pottery  chemistry  of  glazes,  craft  applications,  house  con- 
struction, house  decoration. 

Illustration  and  Advertising  Art — ^Life  drawing,  painting, 
illustration,  design,  composition,  lettering,  historic  ornament, 
history  of  painting  and  sculpture,  English,  anatomy,  sketch- 
ing. 

A  Department  of  Lithography  has  recently  been  established 
in  which  a  one-year  course  is  offered  which  embraces  a  com- 


272  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

plete  training  in  drawing  including  perspective,  geometry, 
color  work,  water-color  painting,  color  harmony,  drawing  on 
stone  with  pen  and  crayon,  full  instruction  in  photo-litho 
work,  retouching  of  positives  and  negatives  with  the  air- 
brush, including  the  use  of  the  Ben  Day  machine  for  the  stone 
work  and  the  photo-litho  processes.  Students  sixteen  years  of 
age  or  over  are  admitted  to  this  course. 

The  applied  art  courses  offered  in  the  evening  school  in- 
clude: Life  Drawing,  Illustration,  Composition,  Sign  Paint- 
ing, Show-card  Writing,  Applied  Design,  Interior  Decoration, 
Costume  Design,  Metal  and  Jewelry,  Pottery. 

There  are  fourteen  teachers  who  give  full  or  part-time  in- 
struction in  the  industrial  art  courses.  These  teachers  main- 
tain intimate  relations  with  the  commercial  field  in  which 
they  instruct.  With  the  exception  of  three  assistants  who  have 
had  comparatively  little  practical  contact,  the  instructors 
have  had  commercial  experience  in  their  respective  trades. 

Craft  work  is  offered  in  connection  with  the  application  of 
designs  to  pottery,  jewelry  and  metal  work,  stenciling,  wood- 
block printing,  dyeing  and  batik  work.  There  is  at  present  no 
practical  cooperation  with  individuals  or  committees  from  the 
trades. 

In  1921-22  there  was  an  average  of  185  students  in  the  in- 
dustrial art  classes  of  the  day  school  and  290  in  the  evening 
classes.  Diplomas  were  awarded  in  1921  to  five  graduates 
from  industrial  art  courses. 


SCHOOLS  CONNECTED  WITH  COLLEGES 

SCHOOL  OF  ART 

THE  H.  SOPHIE  NEWCOMB  MEMORIAL 

COLLEGE  FOR  WOMEN 

New  Orleans,  La. 

The  H.  Sophie  Newcomb  Memorial  College,  founded  in 
1886,  is  devoted  to  the  higher  education  of  young  women.  In 
1909  the  College  was  organized  into  schools  and  the  Depart- 
ment of  Art  became  the  School  of  Art,  headed  by  a  Director. 
The  annual  tuition  fee  for  students  taking  a  full  course  is 
$175.  There  are  a  number  of  scholarships  which  amount 
practically  to  the  remission  of  tuition  fees. 

Candidates  for  admission  to  the  regular  course  must  be  at 
least  sixteen  years  of  age  and  graduates  of  a  high-school. 

The  following  courses  of  study  are  offered  in  the  School  of 
Art:  a  four-year  course  leading  to  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of 
Design;  art  electives  for  academic  students  counting  towards 
the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Arts;  art  courses  required  in  home 
economics. 

The  aim  of  the  course  leading  to  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of 
Design  is  to  provide  opportunity  for  specialized  study  in  art, 
mainly  for  those  who  intend  to  practice  art  as  a  profession, 
but  provided  with  pedagogical  electives  for  those  desirous  of 
teaching  positions.  Thestudents  pursue  required  courses  in  the 
first  year,  and  beginning  with  the  second  year,  take  a  certain 
number  of  electives.  In  the  third  year  two  art  crafts  must 
be  elected.  In  the  fourth  year  the  student  may  elect  only  one 
craft,  giving  double  time  to  this. 

The  following  industrial  art  courses  are  given:  Theoretic 
Design,  Advanced  Design,  Interior  Decoration,  Silversmith- 
ing  and  Jewelry,  China  Painting,  Pottery  Decoration,  Em- 
broidery, Weaving,  Bookmaking,  Bookbinding,  Pottery  Mak- 
ing. 

Pottery  Making — ^Those  taking  this  course  with  the  inten- 
tion of  conducting  a  studio  of  pottery  or  to  teach  the  subject 


274  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

are  required  to  pursue  a  two-year  course  in  chemistry.  The 
course  may  be  pursued  without  chemistry,  however,  by 
others. 

First  year:  Designing  of  vase  forms;  making  of  forms  by 
coiling,  modeling  and  turning;  mold  making;  making  of 
simple  glazes  and  their  application;  use  of  kiln.  Second  year: 
the  same  continued  and  amplified;  theory  of  ceramics,  testing 
and  preparing  clay  for  bodies;  burning  of  body  tests;  com- 
position of  raw,  clear  and  color  glazes;  their  alterations, 
blends  and  defects;  matte  glazes;  ceramic  calculation;  making 
of  vase  forms  continued.  Third  year:  Theory  and  practice 
continued. 

In  the  course  in  Domestic  Art  in  the  department  of  Home 
Economics  there  is  a  course  in  Costume  Design  which  includes 
a  study  of  line  and  color  in  dress,  the  analysis  of  gowns,  and 
the  interpretation  of  the  mode  as  expressed  in  the  best  pub- 
Hcations. 

Of  the  nine  instructors  in  the  School  of  Art  six  give  instruc- 
tion in  applied  art.  The  instructors  do  not  maintain  any  prac- 
tical relations  with  commercial  design  in  the  fields  in  which 
they  instruct  other  than  those  which  are  maintained  between 
the  Newcomb  School  of  Art  and  its  pottery,  metal  shop, 
bookbindery  and  embroidery  studio  which  form  component 
parts  of  the  school.  No  relations  with  trade  committees  are 
maintained. 

There  is  craft  work  in  connection  with  all  the  art  courses 
save  the  first-year  design  course.  Practically  all  of  the  designs 
are  executed  in  the  materials  themselves.  The  design  which 
has  been  carried  out  in  material — textile,  metal,  paper,  clay 
— is  offered  for  sale.  The  school  maintains  a  commercial  pot- 
tery and  other  workshops  which  turn  out  some  ^23,000  worth 
of  artistic  merchandise  each  year.  Practical  factory  methods 
prevail  in  this  establishment  and  it  is  run  on  a  commercial- 
artistic  basis.  Through  the  sale  of  products  the  pupil  of  ex- 
ceptional talent  and  industry  is  enabled  to  pay  the  greater 
portion  of  her  expenses  after  the  second  year. 

In  1921-22  there  were  130  students  in  the  industrial  art 


SCHOOLS  OF  APPLIED  ART  IN  THE  U.  S.       275 

courses.  Degrees  were  awarded  in  1921  to  ten  graduates  from 
industrial  art  courses.  A  number  of  graduates,  which  varies 
from  ten  to  twenty,  are  usually  found  at  work  in  the  school 
factory.  A  few  former  graduates  are  engaged  in  interior  deco- 
ration establishments  in  New  Orleans  and  San  Francisco.  A 
considerable  number  are  engaged  in  teaching. 

ST.  LOUIS  SCHOOL  OF  FINE  ARTS 
WASHINGTON  LTSTIVERSITY 

St.  Louis,  Mo. 

The  St.  Louis  School  of  Fine  Arts  is  a  department  of  Wash- 
ington University  and  is  governed  by  the  University  Corpo- 
ration. It  is  supported  by  endowment,  subscription  and  tui- 
tion. 

Tuition  is  I75  a  year  in  the  regular  classes.  There  are  no 
special  requirements  for  entrance  but  a  high-school  education 
is  advised.  Several  scholarships  are  awarded  to  students  from 
the  local  public  schools  and  several  to  advanced  students  in 
the  school. 

In  addition  to  the  regular  classes  in  Drawing,  Painting, 
Modeling  and  Composition,  there  are  classes  in  Commercial 
Illustration,  Costume  Illustration,  Interior  Decoration,  Cera- 
mics, Weaving,  Jewelry,  Wood-carving,  Etching,  and  Mono- 
typing. 

Commercial  Illustration — Drawing  from  the  antique  and 
life,  anatomy,  perspective,  history  of  art,  painting  in  various 
media,  drawing  from  costumed  models,  lettering,  layout  de- 
sign and  the  designing  of  commercial  advertisements. 

Costume  Illustration — Drawing  from  the  antique  and  life, 
anatomy,  history  of  art,  study  of  period  costume,  designing 
of  costumes  and  of  advertisements  relating  to  women's 
clothing. 

Interior  Decoration — Drawing  from  antique  and  life, 
anatomy,  history  of  art,  design,  study  of  historic  styles  and 
the  designing  of  drapery,  furniture,  and  interiors  in  elevation 
and  perspective. 

Ceramic  Course — Drawing  from  antique  and  life,  design. 


276  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

historic  ornament,  china  painting,  construction  of  pottery 
both  by  building  up  and  by  the  wheel,  glazing  and  firing. 

Craft  work  is  performed  also  in  weaving,  jewelry,  metal 
work,  wood-carving,  basketry,  bookbinding,  leather  tooling, 
etching  and  monotyping.  The  school  does  not  attempt  to 
sell  this  work,  but  a  bazaar  is  held  every  year  by  the  Stu- 
dents' Association. 

Of  the  fifteen  instructors  in  the  school,  six  have  had  ex- 
perience in  industrial  art  work. 

A  committee  composed  of  representatives  from  various 
commercial  establishments  supervises  the  work  of  the  indus- 
trial art  classes. 

Certificates  are  awarded  in  some  of  the  classes  on  the  com- 
pletion of  three  or  four  courses. 


SCHOOLS  CONNECTED  WITH  MUSEUMS 

ART  SCHOOL  OF  THE  ART  INSTITUTE 
OF  CHICAGO 

The  Art  Institute  of  Chicago,  of  which  the  Art  School  is  a 
part,  was  incorporated  May  24,  1879,  ^^^  ^^^  "founding  and 
maintenance  of  schools  of  art  and  design,  the  formation  and 
exhibition  of  collections  of  objects  of  art  and  the  cultivation 
and  extension  of  the  arts  of  design  by  an  appropriate  means." 
The  Institute  is  headed  by  a  Board  of  Trustees  of  nineteen 
regular  members  and  four  ex-officio  members  including  the 
Mayor  of  the  City  and  three  other  members  of  the  city  gov- 
ernment. 

The  School  is  supported  by  gifts  and  tuition  fees.  The  tui- 
tion fee  for  the  day  classes  is  $66.00  a  term  of  twelve  weeks 
for  any  full-time  course.  There  are  three  terms  in  the  school 
year,  exclusive  of  the  summer  school. 

Candidates  for  admission  must  be  eighteen  years  of  age 
and  have  had  high-school  education  or  its  equivalent.  Pupils 
not  able  to  meet  these  conditions  may  enter  Saturday  or  eve- 
ning classes.  A  Certificate  of  Attainment  is  issued  after  the 
successful  completion  of  three  years  in  any  course. 

The  day  school  is  organized  into  a  Lower,  a  Middle  and  an 
Upper  School.  All  entering  students  are  enrolled  in  the  Lower 
School  where  a  general  course  including  life,  design,  still-life, 
color,  perspective,  lettering,  composition,  and  a  survey  of  art 
is  given  for  one  year.  In  the  Middle  School  specialization  in 
interior  decorating,  modeling,  commercial  art,  illustration, 
and  normal  art  is  carried  on.  The  Upper  School  for  advanced 
students  in  fine  art  consists  of  a  group  of  ateliers. 

The  following  industrial  art  subjects  are  offered: 

Design — Embraces  interior  decoration,  period  styles  and 
methods  of  rendering,  practical  work  in  decorative  projects, 
the  techniques  of  batik,  gesso,  decorative  painting,  etc.,  an- 


278  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

alysis  of  architecture,  furniture  design  and  construction.  Ex- 
tensive use  of  the  museum  and  library.  Figure  drawing  is 
continued  during  the  entire  course. 

Pottery — Designing,  throwing,  casting,  firing  and  the 
process  of  glazing. 

Costume  Design  and  Costume  Illustration — Study  of  cos- 
tume in  its  relation  to  the  figure,  and  the  rendering  of  costume 
designs  for  fashion  plates. 

Illustration — ^Applied  to  books  and  other  projects. 

Poster  and  Advertising  Design — ^Practical  training  for 
commercial  art.  How  "selling  ideas"  are  thought  out.  Prac- 
tical technique  in  poster  making. 

Lithography — ^Lithographic  drawing  with  demonstrations 
in  printing  on  the  school  press  by  a  practical  lithographic 
printer. 

Etching,  Blockprintingy  etc. — Etching,  drypoint,  aquatint, 
soft-ground  etching,  wood  and  linoleum  block  cutting  and 
printing  on  the  school  presses.  Compositions  from  life  are  a 
part  of  this  course. 

Printing  Arts — Printing,  typesetting,  design  in  relation 
to  printed  pages,  lettering,  composition,  life,  and  study  of 
processes  of  reproduction. 

The  industrial  art  courses  offered  in  the  evening  and  Satur- 
day schools  are  Illustration  and  Lettering,  Pottery,  Costume 
Design,  and  Decorative  Design. 

There  are  eleven  teachers  giving  instruction  in  industrial 
art  courses.  These  do  not  include  the  drawing  teachers.  A  few 
of  these  have  had  experience  in  commercial  work,  and  one 
is  performing  commercial  work  at  the  present  time. 

There  is  some  craft  work  in  connection  with  the  course  in 
design.  No  designs  or  craft  work  are  sold  by  the  school.  Ex- 
cept in  connection  with  the  lithography  and  printing  classes, 
there  are  no  committees  or  individuals  from  the  trades  co- 
operating with  the  school. 

In  1921-22  the  average  number  of  students  in  the  indus- 
trial art  classes  of  the  day  school  was  130.  Twenty-five  in- 
dustrial art  students  received  diplomas  in  1921. 


SCHOOLS  OF  APPLIED  ART  IN  THE  U.  S.      279 

THE  ART  ACADEMY  OF  CINCINNATI 

Cincinnati,  Ohio 

The  Art  Academy  of  Cincinnati,  founded  in  1 869,  is  a  de- 
partment of  the  Museum  Association.  It  is  governed  by  a 
Board  of  Trustees  of  thirteen  members,  of  which  the  Mayor  is 
an  ex-officio  member. 

The  Academy  provides  opportunity  for  the  training  of 
professional  artists  in  drawing,  painting  and  sculpture,  with 
the  conviction  that  these  subjects  constitute  the  best  foun- 
dation for  expression  in  any  form  of  art. 

The  tuition  fee  is  $80  per  year  for  day  classes  and  1 10  for 
evening  classes.  A  large  number  of  scholarships  are  made 
available  through  endowment  funds  which  provide  cash 
scholarships  in  addition  to  free  tuition.  In  a  few  cases  these 
cash  scholarships  amount  each  to  as  much  as  $2co  a  year. 
There  are  no  special  requirements  for  admission. 

The  following  applied  art  classes  are  provided:  Illustration, 
Costume, Wood-carving,  Decorative  Design,  Porcelain  Paint- 
ing, Metal  and  Leather  Work,  and  Decorative  Modeling.  In 
preparation  for  decorative  work  the  school  offers  drawing, 
and  composition. 

Evening  classes  include  Drawing,  Decorative  Modeling, 
Composition  and  Design. 

There  is  no  fixed  time  in  which  a  certain  amount  of  work 
is  to  be  done— the  only  test  is  the  acquirement  of  skill.  Certi- 
ficates are  issued  stating  what  classes  a  student  has  attended 
and  how  long. 

Four  teachers  give  part-time  instruction  in  applied  art 
classes.  Craft  work  is  done  in  these  classes.  No  designs  are 
sold  by  the  school  and  there  is  no  direct  cooperation  with 
trade  committees. 

Many  graduates  are  employed  at  the  Rookwood  Pottery 
and  in  the  printing  industries. 

In  1921-2,2  the  number  of  students  in  the  classes  of  the  day 
school  was  280,  and  98  in  the  evening  school. 


28o  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

THE  ART  SCHOOL  OF  THE  JOHN  HERRON  ART 
INSTITUTE 

Indianapolis,  Indiana 

This  school,  founded  in  1902,  aims  to  train  students  either 
to  become  creators  of  artistic  products  or  members  of  a  dis- 
criminating and  stimulating  public.  It  is  governed  by  a  Board 
of  Directors  of  twenty-five  members.  The  fee  for  all  day 
classes  is  $130  a  year,  and  $30  a  year  for  evening  classes.  One 
free  scholarship  is  offered  yearly  to  one  candidate  from  each 
county  in  the  state  and  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  scholar- 
ships are  offered  to  the  public-school  children  of  Indianapolis. 
There  are  also  a  certain  number  of  scholarships  granted  for 
meritorious  work  to  students  who  have  spent  at  least  one 
year  in  the  school. 

The  courses  offered  are  Pictorial  Art,  Sculptural  Art,  Com- 
mercial Design,  Illustration,  a  Teachers'  Training  Course  and 
two  junior  courses  for  children. 

Candidates  for  admission  to  industrial  art  courses  must  be 
sixteen  years  old.  A  high-school  education  is  considered  de- 
sirable but  is  not  required. 

In  the  courses  in  commercial  design  and  illustration  the 
first  year's  work  is  the  same  for  all  students  and  embraces 
the  following  subjects:  drawing  from  cast  and  life,  modeling, 
design,  color,  lettering,  perspective,  mechanical  drawing, 
composition,  still  life,  history  of  art. 

Commercial  Design — ^The  work  in  the  second,  third  and 
fourth  years  comprises  the  following  subjects:  drawing  from 
cast  and  life,  still  life,  design  and  lettering,  show  card  design- 
ing, interior  decoration  relative  to  advertisement  and  posters, 
rendering  in  pen  and  ink,  general  commercial  design,  lectures 
on  processes  of  reproduction,  retouching  of  photographs,  use 
of  the  air  brush,  use  of  gold  leaf,  decorative  composition  in 
black-and-white  and  color. 

Illustration — Planned  to  equip  the  students  for  profes- 
sional newspaper,  magazine  and  book  illustration.  First  year: 
Regular  beginner's  course.  Second  year:  Same  as  second  year 


SCHOOLS  OF  APPLIED  ART  IN  THE  U.  S.       281 

commercial  design  course.  Third  year:  Drawing  in  charcoal 
and  pastel,  illustration,  modeling  and  outdoor  sketching. 
Fourth  year:  Figure  sketching,  study  of  historic  costumes, 
composition  and  illustration. 

The  courses  offered  in  the  evening  are  similar  to  those  of  the 
day  school. 

Five  teachers  give  instruction  in  industrial  art  classes,  all 
of  whom  have  had  practical  experience  in  the  field  in  which 
they  instruct.  There  is  an  advisory  committee  of  men  who 
are  directly  connected  with  engraving  and  advertising  com- 
panies. There  is  a  close  contact  maintained  with  practical 
trade  relations  by  the  teachers. 

In  1922  there  were  250  students  in  the  industrial  art 
courses. 


SCHOOLS  CONDUCTED  AS  PRIVATE 
ENTERPRISES 

CHICAGO  SCHOOL  OF  FINE  ARTS 
Chicago,  111. 

The  Chicago  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  aims  to  train  students 
for  art  work  in  the  field  of  industry  and  commerce.  Day, 
evening,  Saturday  and  Sunday,  summer  school  and  corre- 
spondence courses  are  offered.  The  school  is  supported  entirely 
by  tuition  fees,  which  are  ^40  amonthor  ^100  for  three  months 
for  five  full  days  a  week;  $25  a  month  or  ^65  for  three  months 
for  five  half-days  a  week.  The  rate  for  a  ten  months'  season  is 
I300  for  full-time  day  classes.  The  rates  for  three  months  in 
evening  classes  are  ^15,  in  Saturday  classes  $12,  and  in  Sun- 
day classes  $15. 

There  are  no  entrance  requirements  for  admission  to  the 
elementary  classes.  The  student  is  on  probation  during  the 
first  eight  weeks  of  attendance,  however.  In  order  to  enter 
the  advanced  classes,  evidence  must  be  given  to  show  training 
sufficient  to  equal  the  first  year  of  the  Academy  course.  The 
courses  are  outlined  for  two  and  three  school  seasons  of 
forty  weeks  each,  five  days  a  week. 

The  industrial  art  courses  include:  Commercial  Art,  Cos- 
tume Designing,  Draping  and  Making  for  the  Clothing  In- 
dustry; Design  andHandicrafts  in  connection  with  interiordec- 
oration  to  prepare  designers  for  the  furniture,  textile,  jewelry, 
novelty,  toy  and  kindred  industries;  Stage  Setting,  Lighting 
and  costume  Designing  for  the  Theatre. 

A  preparatory  course  called  the  "Art  Essentials  Course" 
includes  pictorial  composition,  elementary  principles  of  ad- 
vertising, the  psychology  of  line  and  color,  pictorial  perspec- 
tive, commercial  lettering,  merchandise  drawing  from  objects 
and  rendering  in  various  media,  sketching  from  costume 
figures,  and  academic  nude  life  drawing. 


SCHOOLS  OF  APPLIED  ART  IN  THE  U.  S.       283 

Courses  of  study  in  the  advanced  industrial  art  classes  are 
as  follows: 

Costume  Design — ^The  principles  of  line  and  color  applied 
to  dress  designing;  measure  taking,  fitting  form  preparation, 
draping,  cutting,  fitting,  sewing,  embroidering,  batiking  and 
pressing  of  sport  and  tailor  suits,  afternoon  and  evening 
dresses  and  theatrical  costumes;  the  making  of  hats  and  dress 
accessories;  embroidery  designing;  modern  adaptations  of 
period  costume;  sketching  in  color  from  models  in  historic 
dress;  and  anatomical  construction  and  academic  nude  life 
drawing. 

Commercial  Drawing — Illustration  in  pen  and  ink,  wash, 
tempera,  water-color  and  oil,  newspaper  and  magazine  adver- 
tisement designing  and  illustration;  color  composition  for 
posters,  covers  and  booklets;  designs  for  floats,  booths,  and 
window  display;  methods  of  reproduction. 

Fashion  Illustration — Sketching  from  domestic  and  imported 
models;  history  of  costume;  newspaper,  magazine  and  cata- 
logue illustration  in  pen-and-ink,  wash  and  tempera;  cover 
designing  in  color  for  fashion  magazines  and  booklets;  aca- 
demic nude  life  drawing. 

Industrial  Art — Principles  of  balance,  rhythm,  harmony, 
etc.,  drawing  from  life,  nature,  historic  periods.  Advanced 
projects  include  experiments  in  improving  the  looks,  and 
therefore  the  selling  value,  of  various  manufactures. 

Interior  Decoration — Instruction  through  demonstration 
and  intensive  personal  instruction  by  practicing  interior 
decorators. 

Jewelry  and  Other  Crafts — Designing  and  execution  of 
jewelry,  metal  work,  basketry,  bookbinding,  comb  sawing, 
leather  tooling,  woodworking,  gesso,  lacquering,  lamp  shade 
making,  batik,  dress  accessories,  fan  painting,  etc. 

Stage  Design — Drawing,  color,  lighting  effects,  technique 
of  water-color  and  dye,  interior  furnishing  in  periods,  historic 
artistic  costuming,  symbolism  and  heraldry,  characterization 
for  makeup,  estimating,  materials,  poster  making;  building 
of  miniature  sets. 


284  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

There  are  night  courses  in  Commercial  Art,  Illustration, 
Dress  Design  and  Interior  Decoration. 

There  is  a  teaching  staff  of  forty  teachers,  a  large  propor- 
tion of  whom  give  instruction  in  applied  art.  All  of  these 
teachers  are  engaged  in  industrial  art  work  in  the  commercial 
field. 

There  is  craft  work  in  connection  with  the  courses  in  cos- 
tume design  and  jewelry  and  other  crafts.  A  Service  Bureau 
is  maintained  by  the  school,  which  disposes  of  students' work, 
sometimes  as  high  as  $  10,000  worth  being  sold  in  a  year. 

There  are  no  committees  from  the  trades  cooperating  with 
the  school,  but  the  direction  keeps  actively  in  touch  with 
industrial  conditions. 

In  1921-22  there  were  125  students  in  the  industrial  art 
courses  and  1 50  in  commercial  art  courses  of  the  day  school 
and  about  equal  numbers  in  the  night  school. 

THE  ART  STUDENTS'  LEAGUE 

New  York  City 

The  Art  Students*  League  was  founded  in  1875  ^Y  ^  group 
of  students  wishing  to  establish  a  school  in  which  they  could 
choose  their  own  teachers  and  course  of  study.  It  is  not  an  en- 
dowed institution  and  depends  on  tuitions  for  its  support.  A 
Board  of  Control  is  elected  by  the  members  of  the  league, 
which  consists  of  twelve  members  the  majority  of  whom  are 
students  working  in  the  school.  The  board  selects  and  engages 
instructors,  conducts  the  management  of  the  school  and  han- 
dles its  finances. 

Quality  of  work  and  personality  admit  to  membership  in 
the  Art  Students'  League  all  students  who  have  worked  at 
least  three  months  in  any  of  its  classes.  Election  to  member- 
ship occurs  at  members'  meetings  which  are  held  several 
times  during  the  year.  The  Board  of  Control  judges  the  work 
and  personality  of  the  proposed  member. 

In  addition  to  classes  in  Drawing,  Painting,  Modeling,  and 
Composition,  there  are  classes  in  Illustration,  Lithography  and 


SCHOOLS  OF  APPLIED  ART  IN  THE  U.  S.      285 

Etching.  Lectures  are  given  on  perspective,  lettering,  layout, 
design  and  general  art  subjects. 

There  are  no  entrance  requirements  but  a  student  may  be 
dropped  if  his  work  is  of  a  poor  standard,  and  the  place  filled 
from  the  waiting  list.  In  some  classes  entrance  is  competitive. 
There  is  no  required  course  of  study  and  no  certificates  award- 
ed; a  student  may  choose  his  instructor  and  subject,  limited 
only  by  the  capacity  of  the  class.  The  same  subjects  are  given 
in  the  day  and  evening  classes,  except  that  the  class  in  lithog- 
raphy is  held  only  in  the  morning,  and  design,  lettering,  and 
layout  are  evening  subjects. 

There  are  twenty-three  instructors  in  the  school.  They  are 
all  well-known  artists  in  their  lines  and  represent  many  varied 
viewpoints.  Ten  scholarships  are  awarded  yearly  to  students 
from  other  art  schools.  The  instructors,  acting  as  jury,  make 
the  choice  from  the  drawings  submitted.  No  school  may  win 
more  than  three  scholarships  in  one  year.  The  holder  of  a 
scholarship  is  entitled  to  enter  any  two  classes.  The  tuition 
varies  from  $g  to  I15  a  month  for  each  class. 

The  enrollment  of  the  year  1921-22  was  2,618.  The  lists  of 
former  students  contain  the  names  of  many  of  the  best  known 
artists  in  the  country. 

NEW  YORK  SCHOOL  OF  FINE  AND  APPLIED  ART 

The  aim  of  this  school  is  to  train  teachers  and  professional 
workers  in  art  applied  to  industrial  and  social  life.  A  tuition 
fee  of  $200  a  season  is  charged,  if  paid  in  advance,  or  $240  if 
paid  in  two  installments.  The  purpose  of  the  school  is  the 
development  of  taste  and  the  practical  application  of  draw- 
ing, color  and  design  to  the  industrial  arts.  There  are  five  per- 
manent scholarships. 

There  are  no  entrance  requirements  except  in  the  Teachers' 
Training  Courses,  where  a  high-school  education  is  necessary. 

The  following  industrial  art  courses  are  oflfered:  Interior 
Architecture  and  Decoration,  Graphic  Advertising  and  Com- 
mercial Design,  Costume  Design  and  Costume  Illustration, 


286  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

and  Stage  Design.  Three  to  four  years'  work  is  required  for  a 
diploma. 

The  Teachers'  Training  Courses  also  embody  the  essentials 
of  interior  decoration,  costume  design,  and  poster  advertis- 
ing. 

Interior  Decoration — ^The  first  year  is  devoted  to  the  study 
of  design  as  it  may  be  applied  to  the  floor  plan  and  walls  of 
the  room  decoratively,  and  to  furniture  and  interior  architec- 
tural construction;  the  second  and  third  years  to  research 
and  interpretation  of  historic  styles  and  their  adaptations  to 
modern  use. 

Landscape  Architecture — ^This  subject  is  taught  both  from 
the  standpoint  of  taste  and  selection  in  matters  of  arrange- 
ment of  properties  and  from  practical,  topographical  observ- 
ation work. 

Graphic  Advertising — ^The  first  year  is  devoted  to  the 
essentials  of  the  human  figure,  and  color  and  design  related  to 
simple  clothes  and  taste  in  personal  expression.  In  the  second 
and  third  years  individual  designs  from  both  historic  and 
modern  motives  are  created.  One  branch  aims  to  fit  for  tech- 
nical magazine  illustration,  the  other  for  practical  dress  con- 
struction. The  latter  course  includes  design  of  models  in 
muslin  and  actual  workroom  technique. 

Stage  Design — ^This  course  combines  stage  costume  with 
stage  manipulation  in  connection  with  a  small  theatre  model 
equipped  for  lighting,  etc. 

Craft  work  is  done  only  in  Teachers'  Training  Course. 

The  average  number  of  students  in  the  main  courses  are: 
Interior  Decoration  130,  Costume  Design  140,  Stage  Design 
20,  Graphic  Advertising  126,  Illustration  50,  Saturday 
Courses  112,  "Hambidge  Theory"  Design  Course  40,  Land- 
scape Architecture  10,  preparatory  course  40. 

A  session  of  six  weeks  is  held  in  the  summer  for  teachers 
and  professional  workers. 

Of  the  forty-four  instructors,  thirty-six  teach  in  the  indus- 
trial art  courses.  Seventeen  have  had  practical  relations  in  the 
field  in  which  they  instruct,  or  are  associated  with  the  work. 


SCHOOLS  OF  APPLIED  ART  IN  THE  U.  S.       287 

The  school  has  a  large  advisory  and  critical  board  from  the 
trade,  composed  of  representative  persons  from  the  fields  in 
which  instruction  is  given. 

This  school  does  not  market  designs,  but  they  are  sold  by 
the  students  themselves  or  by  competitions  given  to  the 
school  by  the  trade. 

A  considerable  proportion  of  the  graduates  of  the  school 
have  found  places  in  the  field  of  commercial  industrial  art. 

The  New  York  School  of  Fine  and  Applied  Art  has  inau- 
gurated a  unique  departure  as  regards  American  art  instruc- 
tion by  opening  a  school  in  Paris  for  English-speaking  students. 
The  subjects  taught  are:  Interior  Architecture  and  Deco- 
ration, Stage  Design  and  Costume  Design,  Illustrative  and 
Poster  Advertising.  The  full  term  extends  from  March  15  th 
to  December  ist. 

Courses  are  arranged  for  different  types  of  students:  (i) 
advanced  students  who  have  studied  one  of  the  above  named 
subjects  for  at  least  a  year  and  a  half  in  the  New  York  school 
or  have  done  the  equivalent  of  this  work  in  some  other  ac- 
credited institution;  (2)  students  who  have  not  studied  be- 
fore; (3)  teachers  of  art  and  others  who  can  be  in  France  only 
six  weeks  or  two  months  during  July  and  August. 

Four  of  the  instructors  from  the  faculty  of  the  New  York 
school  teach  in  the  Paris  school. 


SCHOOLS  UNDER  PUBLIC  CONTROL 

MASSACHUSETTS  NORMAL  ART  SCHOOL 

Boston,  Mass. 

The  Massachusetts  Normal  Art  School  is  a  state  institution 
for  the  training  of  art  teachers  and  industrial  art  workers.  It 
is  administered  by  the  Director  of  Art  Education  for  the 
State.  It  is  free  to  citizens  of  the  State.  Non-residents  pay 
1 1  GO  a  year. 

Boys  must  be  seventeen  and  girls  sixteen  years  of  age  to 
enter  the  school.  A  high-school  education  is  required  for  the 
diploma. 

Four-year  industrial  art  courses  offered  are:  Interior  Deco- 
ration, Illustration,  Costume  Design,  Commercial  Design, 
Textile  Design  and  Craft  Design. 

All  first-year  students  study  free-hand  drawing,  design, 
modeling,  instrumental  drawing,  water-color  values  in  char- 
coal and  oil,  English  and  history. 

The  instruction  in  the  last  three  years  in  the  industrial  art 
courses  deals  with  the  following: 

Interior  Decoration — Interior  design,  antique,  perspective, 
interior  accessories,  color  analysis,  sketching,  rendering, 
French,  English  literature  and  history,  interior  decoration, 
period  styles,  fabrics,  and  thesis. 

Costume  Design — Design,  antique,  perspective,  compo- 
sition, oil  painting,  woodwork,  modeling,  French,  English 
literature  and  history,  life  drawing,  costume  design,  anatomy, 
color,  laboratory,  illustration,  costumed  model,  thesis  and 
eight  weeks  in  costume  establishment.  The  students  enter 
dressmaking  establishments  where  they  are  paid  $8  a 
week.  They  enter  upon  the  same  footing  as  other  employees, 
working  at  the  dressmaking  table  with  the  privilege,  in  many 
cases,  of  submitting  designs  and  suggestions. 

Illustration — Design,  antique,  perspective,  composition,  oil 
painting,  woodwork,  modeling,  French,  English  literature 


SCHOOLS  OF  APPLIED  ART  IN  THE  U.  S.       289 

and  history,  general  illustration,  life,  anatomy,  color,  labora- 
tory work,  reproductive  processes,  thesis. 

Commercial  Design  and  Craft  Design — Same  as  above  ex- 
cept that  commercial  design  and  craft  design  are  substituted 
for  general  illustration. 

In  the  evening  classes  instruction  is  given  in  free-hand  draw- 
ing, printing  art,  design,  interior  decoration,  costume  design, 
life  and  instrumental  drawing. 

There  are  sixteen  instructors  in  the  industrial  art  classes, 
the  majority  of  whom  teach  on  a  part-time  basis  and  do 
practical  work  in  art  fields.  There  is  at  present  little  direct 
trade  cooperation  with  committees,  but  considerable  with 
individuals,  especially  in  costume  design. 

There  is  craft  work  in  connection  with  all  design  courses. 
The  students'  work  is  not  marketed  by  the  school  but  stu- 
dents have  done  designing  and  illustrating  for  prominent 
firms  in  Boston. 

In  1922  there  were  250  industrial  art  students  in  the  school. 
The  average  number  of  graduates  from  industrial  art  courses 
is  fifty. 

SCHOOL  OF  ART  AND  INDUSTRY 

Grand  Rapids,  Michigan 

The  Grand  Rapids  School  of  Art  and  Industry,  established 
in  1 91 6,  is  supported  by  the  municipality  of  Grand  Rapids 
and  is  controlled  by  the  Board  of  Education.  The  school  aims 
to  train  workers  and  believes  that  true  appreciation  and  skill 
can  be  gained  only  through  the  solution  of  practical  problems 
in  the  studio  or  workroom. 

Residents  of  Grand  Rapids  are  charged  a  yearly  tuition  fee 
of  $40  for  the  full  course  (six  hours  a  day).  Non-residents  pay 
^90  per  year.  The  tuition  in  the  night  classes  is  $10.00  a  year. 
The  school  is  closely  allied  with  the  Grand  Rapids  Junior 
College. 

There  are  no  educational  requirements  for  admission,  ex- 
cept that  high-school  graduation  is  considered  desirable. 


290  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

The  following  two-year  industrial  art  courses  are  offered: 
Decorative  and  Applied  Design;  Commercial  Design  and 
Graphic  Arts;  Modeling  and  Carving;  Home  Arts  and  Crafts, 
Costume  Design,  Furniture  Drawing,  Design  and  Interior 
Decoration. 

The  first  year's  training,  which  is  the  same  for  all  courses, 
comprises  the  following:  Principles  of  drawing;  lettering;  de- 
sign and  color;  analysis  of  historic  ornament;  mechanical 
drawing  and  perspective;  sketching;  history  and  biography. 
Upon  the  completion  of  this  work  the  student  specializes  in 
some  particular  line  of  work. 

The  advanced  work  in  the  industrial  art  cours'es  is  as  fol- 
lows: 

Decorative  and  Applied  Design — Design  as  applied  to  wall 
paper,  rugs,  metal  work,  jewelry,  lighting  fixtures,  textiles, 
inlay  and  marquetry,  window  decorations,  stage  settings, 
ceramics,  leather  work,  wood-carving,  furniture  decoration, 
bookbinding,  etc. 

Commercial  Design  and  Graphic  Arts — Reproductive  meth- 
ods, typography,  drawing  in  various  media,  lettering,  advertis- 
ing design,illustrating,dummy  making,  posters  and  placards, 
color  sketches,  working  drawings. 

Modeling  and  Carving — Modeling,  in  relief  and  in  the 
round,  applied  to  furniture  and  metal  industries. 

Home  Arts  and  Crafts — Costume  and  millinery  design, 
home  decoration,  embroidery,  jewelry,  metal  work,  stenciling. 

Furniture  Design — Period  styles,  architectural  drawing, 
cabinet-making,  furniture  design  and  rendering;  modeling  and 
carving;  practical furnituredesign, practical  furniture  making. 

The  night  classes  aim  to  train  workers  for  the  furniture  and 
printing  industries  and  designers  for  different  mechanical 
arts  and  industries. 

Of  the  three  teachers  connected  with  the  school  two  give 
full-time  instruction  and  one  gives  part-time  instruction  in 
the  industrial  arts  courses.  Two  of  these  instructors  have  had 
practical  experience  in  the  fields  in  which  they  teach  and  one 
maintains  practical  trade  relations  at  the  present  time. 


SCHOOLS  OF  APPLIED  ART  IN  THE  U.  S.       291 

Practical  work  to  the  approximate  amount  of  $600  has 
been  done  by  the  students.  Part  of  this  money  has  been  used 
for  scholarships. 

In  1921-22  there  were  fifty-nine  students  in  the  industrial 
art  classes  of  the  day  school  and  twenty-seven  in  the  evening 
classes.  Diplomas  were  awarded  to  fourteen  in  1921. 

FAWCETT  SCHOOL  OF  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

Newark,  N.  J. 

This  school,  founded  in  1882,  primarily  an  evening  school 
operating  under  the  Board  of  Education  of  Newark,  aims  to 
aid  any  worker  in  any  field  of  industrial  activity  in  his  effort 
to  develop  originality  and  self-expression.  The  student  body, 
especially  of  the  evening  classes,  consists  chiefly  of  men  and 
women  from  the  trades.  No  tuition  fees  are  charged  residents 
of  Newark.  Non-residents  are  required  to  pay  a  fee  of  ^30 
for  the  school  year,  payable  in  advance. 

There  are  no  entrance  requirements  except  that  a  student 
must  be  fifteen  years  or  older. 

The  following  industrial  art  courses  are  oflFered:  Costume 
Design  and  Illustration,  Design  and  Applied  Arts,  Arts  and 
Crafts,  Jewelry  Design  and  Making,  Die  Cutting,  Interior 
Decoration,  Ceramics. 

Costume  Design  and  Illustration — ^Three  evenings  per 
week.  Includes  cast  and  life  drawing,  costumed  model,  color, 
methods  of  reproduction,  perspective,  newspaper  advertis- 
ing, fashion  drawing  for  magazines  and  catalogues.  In  the 
fourth  year  the  student  specializes  in  one  of  these  subjects. 

Design  and  Applied  Arts — ^Two  evenings  per  week.  First 
three  years  include — principles  of  design,  color  theory  and 
general  design  of  crafts.  In  the  fourth  year  an  opportunity  is 
given  to  specialize  in  one  of  the  crafts,  such  as  needlework, 
batik,  tied  and  dyed  design,  ceramics. 

Arts  and  Crafts  Course — ^Two  and  three  evenings  per  week. 
Includes  techniques  of  etching,  piercing,  forming,  soldering, 
brazing  and  coloring  metals,  wood-carving,  lamp  construc- 
tion, wax  and  clay  modeling. 


292  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

Jewelry  Designing  and  Making — ^Two  and  three  evenings 
per  week.  Design,  historic  ornament,  designing  for  gold  and 
platinum  work,  shop  practices  in  construction  of  commercial 
jewelry.  Individual  instruction  in  specialized  work.  Engrav- 
ing of  plain  work,  monograms. 

T>ie  Cutting — Includes  designing,  modeling,  cutting  of 
dies,  stamps  and  punches.  Trade  methods  are  taught  in  this 
course. 

Interior  Decoration — Details,  types  of  furniture,  color 
theory,  principles  of  arrangement,  stairways,  entrances, 
drawings  of  various  types  of  rooms  in  perspective,  color 
schemes;  perspective  drawing  and  painting  of  rooms  in  period 
styles,  furniture  details. 

Ceramics — Includes  designing  and  arrangement  of  units, 
structural  design,  color  study,  application  of  color,  stacking 
of  kiln,  firing  of  kiln. 

Millinery — ^Two  evenings  per  week;  one  year:  Construc- 
tion of  a  hat,  making  of  ornaments,  scheming  of  colors  and 
the  technique  necessary  in  producing  a  trade  hat. 

The  following  industrial  art  courses  are  offered  in  the  day 
sessions  of  the  school:  Batik  or  Textile;  Arts  and  Crafts;  In- 
terior Decoration;  Ceramics. 

There  is  craft  work  in  connection  with  the  courses  in  in- 
dustrial art.  The  school  does  not  market  the  product  of  the 
students. 

Of  the  thirty-five  teachers  connected  with  the  school  six 
give  instruction  in  industrial  art  courses.  These  teachers  are 
chosen  almost  entirely  from  persons  who  are  actively  engaged 
in  the  trades.  They  are  in  many  instances  heads  of  depart- 
ments, superintendents  and  supervisors  in  their  respective 
fields  of  work.  There  are  no  committees  from  the  trades  co- 
operating with  the  school. 

In  1921-22  there  were  213  students  in  the  industrial  art 
courses  of  the  day  school  and  556  in  the  evening  school.  Di- 
plomas were  awarded  in  1921  to  15  graduates  from  industrial 
art  courses. 


SCHOOLS  OF  APPLIED  ART  IN  THE  U.  S.       293 

EVENING  SCHOOL  OF  INDUSTRIAL  ART 

New  York  City 

The  purpose  of  the  New  York  Evening  School  of  Industrial 
Art,  which  is  under  the  control  of  the  Board  of  Education,  is 
to  provide  free  instruction  in  branches  of  drawing  and  design 
as  applied  to  various  art  industries.  Applicants  for  admission 
to  classes  must  present  evidence  of  fitness  to  take  up  the  work 
for  which  they  register.  Workers  in  the  trades  requiring 
drawing,  design  and  color  are  admitted  as  well  as  students 
who  wish  to  specialize  in  any  particular  branch  or  phase  of 
industrial  art. 

The  classes  meet  four  nights  a  week  for  two-hour  sessions. 
Certificates  are  awarded  to  students  who  reach  a  creditable 
standard  and  have  attended  eighty  per  cent,  of  the  sessions. 

The  following  industrial  art  courses  are  offered:  Costume 
Design,  Interior  Decoration,  Jewelry,  Commercial  Adver- 
tising, Modeling,  Textile  and  General  Design,  Stained-glass 
Design  and  Scenic  Design. 

Costume  Design — Figure  drawing,  sketching  from  models, 
pictorial  composition,  catalogue  and  poster  work. 

Interior  Decoration — Designing  and  rendering  of  interiors 
and  accessories. 

Jewelry  Design — ^Technical  training  in  melting  metals, 
repousse,  chasing,  etching,  enameling  and  mounting,  and 
application  of  design. 

Poster  and  AdvertisingDesign — Lettering  and  poster  design 
with  direct  reference  to  reproduction. 

Modeling — ^Historic  ornament  and  original  designs  for 
terra  cotta  and  stonework,  for  cast  and  wrought  metal,  for 
pottery  with  its  decorative  treatment,  etc.,  enlarging  and 
reducing  processes,  ceramics. 

"Textile  Design — Designing  of  all-over  patterns  for  machine 
and  hand-printed  fabrics;  stenciling  and  wood-block  printing. 

Principles  of  Design — Decorative  treatment  of  natural 
forms  in  their  application  to  industrial  art;  conventionaliz- 
ation of  lines  and  masses,  color  harmony. 


294  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

Mural  Decoration — ^The  study  of  the  figure  (draped  and 
nude  models),  composition,  relation  of  architecture  and 
painting,  panels  over  mantels. 

Stained-Glass  Design — Mosaic  and  lead-glass  decoration. 

Scenic  Design — Mechanics  of  the  stage,  lighting  and  his- 
tory; stage-craft  as  applied  to  the  speaking  and  the  movie 
stage;  pageants. 

Craft  work  is  done  in  jewelry,  ceramics  and  hand-executed 
fabrics. 

Nineteen  teachers  give  instruction  in  industrial  art  classes, 
all  of  whom  are  professional  workers. 

The  various  industrial  departments  are  developed  in  co- 
operation with  committees  of  manufacturers.  These  com- 
mittees offer  practical  suggestions  as  to  the  best  development 
of  designers  for  their  respective  industries  and  as  many  of 
these  ideas  as  possible  are  incorporated  in  the  courses. 

In  1921-22  there  was  an  average  of  1,034  students  attend- 
ing industrial  art  courses.  Certificates  were  awarded  to  ninety- 
nine. 

WASHINGTON  IRVING  HIGH  SCHOOL 

New  York  City 

This  school  is  a  public  high-school  for  girls,  supported  by 
the  City  of  New  York  and  controlled  by  the  Board  of  Edu- 
cation. The  art  work  is  carried  on  in  an  art  department, 
directed  by  a  department  head  or  chairman  who  is  under  the 
supervision  of  the  City  Director  of  Art.  The  course  in  indus- 
trial art,  which  is  a  three  year  course  with  an  optional  fourth 
year,  aims  to  train  girls  to  become  industrial  designers. 

Requirements  for  admission  to  the  industrial  art  courses 
are  graduation  from  an  elementary  school  and  talent  in 
drawing. 

During  the  first  year  in  the  high-school  the  pupils  follow  a 
general  high-school  course,  devoting  six  periods  a  week  to 
drawing  and  design.  At  the  end  of  the  year,  the  student  begins 
an  intensive  study  of  these  subjects,  devoting  two-thirds  of 
her  time  to  them.  At  the  end  of  this  second  vear  the  student 


SCHOOLS  OF  APPLIED  ART  IN  THE  U.  S.       295 

is  given  an  opportunity  to  choose  between  the  following 
courses:  Commercial  Design,  Costume  Illustration  and  Tex- 
tile Design.  The  art  work  in  these  courses  is  as  follows: 

Costume  Design — Study  and  practice  of  commercial  let- 
tering; sketches  and  design  units  suitable  for  reproduction  in 
black-and-white  illustration;  illustrated  advertisements  suit- 
able for  newspaper  and  magazine  work,  in  black-and-white; 
general  commercial  work;  gift  cards,  menus,  labels,  poster 
stamps,  tags,  etc.;  general  decorative  work  applied  to  furni- 
ture, box  tops,  trays,  boxes,  covers,  etc.;  simple  posters  in 
color. 

Costume  Illustration — Figure  study  from  model  and  cast, 
anatomy;  costume  sketching  and  illustration  applied  to  news- 
paper work,  fashion  periodicals,  pattern  and  catalogue  illus- 
trations, dressmakers  and  manufacturers'  sketching. 

'Textile  D^j/^«— Study  of  historic  ornament  and  work  in 
museums;  theory  and  principles  of  design  as  applied  to  tex- 
tiles; technical  work  in  planning  underlays  and  repeats  of 
patterns;  methods  of  reproduction,  supplemented  by  visits  to 
manufacturing  firms;  specialized  work  in  planning  patterns 
for  woven  fabrics  and  patterns  for  printed  shirtings,  silk, 
cretonnes,  etc. 

There  are  seventeen  teachers  giving  full  time  in  the  indus- 
trial art  courses.  All  of  the  instructors  have  made  personal 
study  of  the  industrial  arts  taught  in  the  school  and  some  are 
performing  commercial  work  at  the  present  time. 

There  are  no  official  committees  from  the  trades  cooperat- 
ing with  the  school,  but  close  contact  with  the  commercial 
situation  is  insured  by  continual  visits  of  the  teachers  to 
trade  establishments  and  by  similar  visits  of  trade  designers 
to  the  school.  Two  teachers  in  the  design  courses  are  con- 
tinuously assigned  to  the  study  of  conditions  in  the  trade. 

The  craft  work  in  connection  with  the  study  of  design  in- 
cludes embroidery,  weaving,  stenciling,  wood-block  printing. 
Textile  designs  made  by  the  students  are  sold  to  various 
firms  and  sales  are  also  made  of  the  designs  shown  in  the 
exhibition  each  year. 


296  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

The  average  number  of  industrial  art  students  in  1921-22 
was  806.  Diplomas  were  awarded  to  142  graduates  from  the 
industrial  art  courses  in  1921. 

A  list  of  firms  employing  graduates  of  Washington  Irving 
High  School  as  designers  shows  a  large  number  of  commercial 
design  studios,  interior  decorating  establishments,  costume 
designers,  and  textile  manufacturers. 

THE  SCHOOL  OF  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

Trenton,  N.  J. 

The  school  was  established  in  1898  under  a  state  act 
"providing  for  the  establishment  of  schools  for  industrial 
education."  It  is  supported  by  the  State  of  New  Jersey  and 
the  City  of  Trenton,  and  is  in  charge  of  a  "Board  of  Trustees 
of  schools  for  industrial  education  for  the  City  of  Trenton," 
appointed  by  the  Governor  of  the  State.  The  Governor  of 
New  Jersey  and  the  Mayor  of  the  City  of  Trenton  serve  on 
the  board  as  ex-officio  members. 

Tuition  fees  to  residents  of  New  Jersey  range  from  $2  to 
$25  per  year,  according  to  the  number  of  courses  pursued. 
Non-residents  are  charged  three  times  the  fees  charged 
residents.  There  are  no  particular  requirements  for  admission. 

Courses  in  industrial  art  are  as  follows: 

Artisan  Course — Four  years  (either  day  or  evening).  Com- 
prises work  in  the  following  subjects:  Firstyear — clayworking, 
ornament,  free-handdrawing,  designing,  mechanical  drawing; 
Second  year — woodworking,  ornament,  designing,  mechanical 
drawing  including  perspective;  Third  year — woodworking, 
clayworking,  advanced  mechanical  drawing  or  architectural 
design,  designing,  history  of  art.  The  work  of  the  fourth  year 
is  devoted  to  the  execution  of  a  piece  of  applied  art  in  clay, 
wood,  or  metal,  or  a  combination  of  these  materials,  in  which 
artistic  quality  and  technical  workmanship  are  given  equal 
weight. 

Classes  are  organized  in  the  following  industrial  art  sub- 
jects. These  are  not  necessarily  separate  classes,  as  often 
several  groups  work  under  the  direction  of  one  instructor. 


SCHOOLS  OF  APPLIED  ART  IN  THE  U.  S.      297 

Afternoon  and  evening  classes — designing,  home  decoration, 
modeling,  mechanical  perspective  for  students  of  illustration 
and  interior  decoration,  portraiture,  pottery.  Evening  classes — 
pen  drawing,  poster  classes,  show-card  writing,  woodworking. 

There  is  craft  work  in  connection  with  the  study  of  design 
in  modeling,  pottery,  home  decoration,  dressmaking  and 
millinery  and  in  wood  and  ironworking. 

There  are  forty-three  instructors  in  industrial  art  subjects. 
Twenty-five  of  these  maintain  practical  relations  with  the  field 
in  which  they  instruct. 

No  trade  committees  are  reported  as  cooperating  with  the 
school  and  no  sales  department  is  maintained. 

In  1921-22  there  were  292  students  in  the  industrial  art 
classes  of  the  day  school,  887  in  evening  industrial  art  classes, 
and  47  in  both  day  and  evening  classes.  Diplomas  were 
awarded  in  192 1  to  fifty  graduates  from  industrial  art  courses. 

NEW  YORK  TEXTILE  HIGH  SCHOOL 
New  York  City 

Upon  the  recommendation  of  various  organizations  and 
establishments  connected  with  the  textile  industry,  the  New 
York  City  Board  of  Education  established  in  1919  a  Textile 
High  School  to  meet  the  needs  of  this  industry.  It  is  a  free 
school,  supported  by  the  City.  Several  cash  scholarships  or 
money  prizes  of  from  ^150  to  $200  are  offered  by  manufac- 
turers to  worthy  students  in  design. 

Boys  and  girls,  sixteen  years  of  age,  who  have  completed 
satisfactorily  the  first  two  years  of  high-school  and  who  have 
a  knowledge  of  free-hand  drawing  are  admitted  to  the  regular 
courses  of  two  years.  Graduates  of  junior  high-schools  and 
pupils  who  have  completed oneyear  of  high-school  are  eligible 
to  enter  the  preparatory  course  of  the  school.  The  student  is 
placed  on  probation  for  the  first  five  months. 

There  are  two  design  courses — ^Applied  Textile  Design  and 
Costume  Design.  Other  courses,  in  all  of  which  there  is  some 
work  in  design,  are  as  follows:  General  Textiles;  Marketing 
of  Textiles;  Textile  Manufacture  and  Engineering;  Chemistry 


298  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

and  Dyeing.  Certain  academic  subjects  are  required  in  all 
of  the  courses.  Pupils  who  pass  the  Regents'  examinations 
in  these  subjects  receive,  in  addition  to  the  regular  school 
diploma,  a  Regents'  high-school  diploma  in  academic  and 
technical  subjects. 

Costume  Design — Includes  costume  sketching,  color  har- 
mony, costume  design,  draping,  cutting,  pattern  cutting  and 
grading,  fashion  illustration  and  instruction  in  dress  materials. 

Applied  'Textile  Design — Includes  work  in  printed  and 
woven  textile  design  and  the  actual  placing  of  these  designs 
on  fabrics. 

Affiliated  with  this  school  is  an  Evening  Textile  School  for 
men  and  women  engaged  in  the  trade.  The  industrial  art 
courses  offered  are — ^Applied  Textile  Design  and  Costume 
Design. 

There  are  three  teachers  of  applied  art  in  the  day  school 
who  give  full  time  to  this  work.  They  have  had  practical 
experience  in  the  field  in  which  they  instruct  and  dosome  free- 
lance work  at  the  present  time. 

In  the  evening  school  there  are  five  instructors  in  the  design 
courses.  These  teachers  have  all  had  over  ten  years  of  prac- 
tical trade  experience  and  are  employed  during  the  day  in  the 
industries  in  which  they  instruct. 

There  is  craft  work  in  connection  with  the  instruction  in 
design.  No  products  are  sold  through  the  school  organization, 
but  some  are  sold  by  individual  students. 

There  is  very  close  cooperation  between  the  school  and  the 
trade.  Some  of  the  organizations  which  act  in  an  advisory 
capacity  are  the  Waist  League,  Upholstery  Association  of 
America,  the  Silk  Association,  Sweater  and  Knit  Goods 
Association,  Clothiers'  Association,  Cotton  Converters  Asso- 
ciation, Finishers  Association,  Federation  of  Art  Societies, 
Museum  of  French  Art. 

In  1922  there  were  730  students  in  the  day  school, distrib- 
uted as  follows:  Applied  Textile  Design,  ()^\  Costume  Design, 
175;  General  Textiles,  140;  Marketing  of  Textiles,  225;  Tex- 
tile Manufacture  and  Engineering,  50;  Chemistry  and  Dye- 


SCHOOLS  OF  APPLIED  ART  IN  THE  U.  S.      299 

ing,  75.  The  school  is  too  young  to  furnish  data  regarding  the 
subsequent  careers  of  graduates. 

OTHER  TEXTILE  SCHOOLS 

In  addition  to  the  New  York  Textile  School  and  the  textile 
departments  of  the  Pennsylvania  Museum  and  School  of 
Industrial  Art  and  the  Rhode  Island  School  of  Design  there 
are  a  number  of  textile  schools  in  which  a  limited  amount  of 
instruction  in  textile  design  is  provided. 

Among  these  are  the  three  state-supported  schools  in 
Massachusetts — the  Lowell  Textile  School,  The  Bradford 
Durfee  Textile  School  at  Fall  River,  and  the  New  Bedford 
Textile  School. 

These  institutions  give  little  attention  to  the  artistic  side 
of  textile  design  but  fabric  design  or  the  production  of  the 
various  cloth  weaves  is  studied  thoroughly. 

Such  schools  train  men  mainly  for  positions  on  the  mechan- 
ical side  of  textile  production,  and  such  graduates  as  take 
positions  in  the  designing  houses  of  the  mills  are  called  upon 
mainly  to  adapt  designs  sent  in  by  converters  and  commission 
houses  to  the  requirements  of  the  looms.  In  only  one  school, 
the  Bradford  Durfee  School,  is  instruction  in  this  field  carried 
far  enough  to  equip  a  textile  designer  for  any  creative  work. 

In  this  school  the  two  years*  course  in  Designing  and  Weav- 
ing includes  instruction  in  designing  and  cloth  analysis, 
weaving  and  free-hand  drawing. 

Instruction  in  free-hand  drawing  is  mainly  devoted  to  a 
study  of  ornament  as  applied  to  textile  decoration. 

MANHATTAN  TRADE  SCHOOL  FOR  GIRLS 

New  York  City 

This  school,  supported  by  the  City  of  New  York  and  con- 
trolled by  the  Board  of  Education,  aims  to  train  girls  who 
wish  to  prepare  for  entering  the  trades.  No  tuition  fees  are 
charged.  Girls  fifteen  years  old  or  over  who  are  graduates , 
of  elementary  schools  are  admitted.  Girls  who  are  not  grad- 


300  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

uates  of  elementary  schools,  but  who  have  completed  the 
requirements  for  working  papers,  are  admitted  only  when 
there  are  vacancies. 

The  trades  taught  are:  Dressmaking;  millinery;  making  of 
flowers  and  feathers,  lamp  shades,  novelties;  sample  mount- 
ing; operation  of  garment  machine,  straw-hat  machine,  em- 
broidery machine;  manicuring  and  shampooing. 

The  course  leading  to  a  diploma  extends  over  two  years. 
About  one  half  of  the  instruction  time  is  devoted  to  trade 
practice.  Three  hours  a  week  are  given  to  art  instruction  or 
industrial  design.  If  an  entering  student  shows  any  marked 
talent  for  drawing  or  designing,  she  is  transferred  to  some 
other  school  where  this  work  is  given  special  attention.  One- 
half  of  the  time  is  given  to  general  and  related  subjects  such 
as  English,  arithmetic,  textiles,  civics,  industrial  design,  hy- 
giene and  physical  training,  and  a  certain  amount  of  cooking 
and  laundry  work  designed  to  make  girls  more  useful  in  their 
homes.  Diplomas  are  awarded  in  January  to  all  girls  who  have 
completed  the  course  and  been  placed  in  the  trade  for  at 
least  three  months. 

There  are  about  fifty  full-time  teachers  who  have  had  at 
least  five  years'  trade  experience.  The  school  maintains  con- 
tact with  the  trade  through  its  placement  secretary,  also 
through  cooperation  with  individuals  in  various  industries. 

There  is  craft  work  in  all  classes.  An  attractive  salesroom 
with  large  display  windows  where  the  work  of  the  students  is 
sold  is  maintained  by  the  school.  A  very  limited  amount  of 
order  work  is  also  taken.  The  money  derived  from  the  sales 
covers  the  entire  cost  of  materials,  textbooks,  office  and 
academic  supplies,  but  not  the  salaries  of  the  teachers  nor  the 
maintenance  of  the  building. 

There  are  from  i,cxx)  to  1,200  students  in  the  school  con- 
stantly. From  fifty  to  sixty  per  cent,  of  the  girls  complete 
some  one  of  the  courses  and  are  placed  by  the  placement 
secretary.  About  forty  per  cent,  of  the  girls  take  up  dressmak- 
ing, fifteen  per  cent,  millinery,  twenty  per  cent,  clothing  oper- 
ating trades,  and  twenty-five  per  cent,  miscellaneous. 


SPECIAL  SCHOOLS  OR  CLASSES 

MITCHELL  DESIGNING  SCHOOL 

New  York  City 

This  school  was  established  in  1873.  ^^  ^^  maintained  by  a 
private  corporation  affiliated  with  the  Mitchell  Publications, 
which  include  The  American  Ladies*  Tailor,  The  Sartorial 
Art  Journal,  and  the  American  Furrier.  The  work  of  the  school 
consists  in  teaching  pattern  drafting  for  men's  and  women's 
tailored  garments.  The  course  requires  three  months  or  a 
year,  depending  upon  the  ability  and  experience  of  the  student. 
Two-thirds  of  the  time  is  given  to  pattern  drafting  and  one- 
third  to  draping  and  grading.  A  valuable  and  comprehensive 
collection  of  fashion  books  and  plates  is  at  the  disposition  of 
students. 

Only  persons  in  the  tailoring  trades  are  admitted.  Enroll- 
ment is  reported  as  between  200  and  300  students  a  year.  The 
teachers  are  all  practical  men,  having  been  trained  in  the 
school  for  one  year  before  they  are  allowed  to  instruct.  The 
students  execute  their  work  in  paper  and  when  sufficiently 
advanced  make  garments  for  their  own  use.  It  is  stated  that 
practically  all  graduates  enter  establishments  as  designers  or 
cutters. 

authentic  studios 

brown's  salon  studios 

fashion  academy 

McDowell  dressmaking  and  millinery 

SCHOOL 

New  York  City 

The  above  represent  private  institutions  in  New  York  City 
giving  some  or  all  of  the  following  courses :  Costume  Design, 
Cutting,  Fitting,  Draping,  Pattern  Drafting,  Costume  Illus- 
tration, Dressmaking  and  Millinery. 


302  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

Tuition  fees  which  are  generally  charged  for  the  special 
course,  range  from  $30  to  $225  a  course.  Some  of  the  schools 
report  enrollments  ranging  from  300  to  600  yearly. 

Designs  and  models  are  made  and  sold  to  the  trade  in  each 
of  the  schools  by  instructors  or  students  or  both. 

A  large  percentage  of  the  graduates  are  reported  to  obtain 
positions  in  the  trade  or  to  be  engaged  as  free-lance  designers. 

THE  SCHOOL  OF  PRINTING  AND  GRAPHIC  ARTS 

WENTWORTH  INSTITUTE 

Boston,  Mass. 

The  School  of  Printing  and  Graphic  Arts,  opened  in  191 6, 
is  a  department  of  Wentworth  Institute,  an  endowed  insti- 
tution controlled  by  a  board  of  directors.  The  principal  of  the 
Institute  is  the  executive  head.  Each  division  of  the  School  of 
Printing  and  Graphic  Arts  has  its  own  department  head. 

The  tuition  fees  are  thirty  dollars  a  year  for  day  classes  and 
ten  dollars  for  the  evening  classes. 

The  day  courses  offered  in  Printing  and  Graphic  Arts,  are: 
first,  one-year  day  courses  of  apprenticeship  grade  for  persons 
who  wish  to  become  skilled  workmen  in  composition,  press- 
work,  or  photo-engraving;  and  second,  a  two-year  course  in 
Printing  and  Graphic  Arts  for  those  who  wish  to  train  them- 
selves for  advanced  positions  in  the  printing  or  publishing 
industry,  or  for  persons  who  wish  to  become  superior  and 
artistic  compositors,  layout  men,  or  designers  of  fine  printing. 
In  addition  to  these  full-time  day  courses,  there  are  special 
part-time  courses  in  etching,  designing,  hand  engraving  and 
color  printing  for  artists  and  others.  There  are  also  part-time 
day  courses  for  apprentices  employed  in  printing  shops  in 
Boston  and  vicinity  and  evening  courses  intended  for  young 
men  who  are  already  employed  in  the  trades. 

The  one-year  printing  course  includes  hand  composition, 
stonework,  presswork,  English,  proof-reading,  applied  math- 
ematics, drafting,  lettering,  layout  design,  use  of  colors,  ap- 
plied science  for  printers  and  talks  on  processes  and  materials. 


SCHOOLS  OF  APPLIED  ART  IN  THE  U.  S.       303 

The  one-year  course  in  photo-engraving  includes  making  of 
wet  and  dry  negatives,  printing  on  metal,  etching,  engraving, 
re-etching,  proving,  routing,  blocking,  English,  applied 
mathematics,  drafting  and  practical  talks. 

The  first  year  of  the  two-year  course  in  Printing  and 
Graphic  Arts  covers  the  ground  of  the  one-year  course  in 
printing  and  in  addition  includes  more  advanced  work  in 
printing  and  applied  art,  history  of  printing,  etc.  In  the 
second  year  there  is  a  course  in  design  and  color  work  which 
deals  with  advanced  instruction  in  layouts,  study  of  type 
and  original  designs,  and  advanced  study  of  color  and  color 
processes.  There  is  also  a  course  in  photographic  processes 
and  one  in  advanced  shop  practice. 

Of  the  four  instructors  in  shop  practices  all  have  had  prac- 
tical experience. 

Craft  work  is  done  in  the  making  of  books,  folders,  posters, 
etc.  Orders  are  sometimes  executed  but  the  school  has  no 
sales  department. 

A  committee  on  apprentices  from  the  Boston  Typothetae 
and  the  United  Typothetae  of  America  cooperate  in  an 
advisory  capacity.  There  is  a  similar  relationship  with  the 
employing  photo-engravers. 

In  1921-22  there  were  sixty-four  day  students  in  the  print- 
ing course  and  1 1 1  in  the  evening.  Thirty-five  received  diplo- 
mas in  the  day  course. 

OTHER  PRINTING  SCHOOLS 

Besides  the  printing  departments  at  the  Carnegie  Institute 
and  the  Wentworth  Institute  previously  described,  trade 
instruction  in  printing  is  given  at  several  schools  in  which  a 
certain  amount  of  attention  to  design  is  involved.  Among 
these  is  the  School  of  Printing  maintained  by  the  United 
Typothetae  of  America,  at  Indianapolis.  This  school  is 
operated  by  the  above-named  employers'  organization  and 
directed  by  a  Committee  on  Education.  The  city  of  Indian- 
apolis has  furnished  the  buildings,  and  provides  light,  power 
and  heat.  The  manufacturers  have  donated  the  machinery. 


304  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

The  aim  of  the  school  is  to  develop  higher  efficiency  and 
better  craftsmanship  among  journeymen  and  to  train  young 
men  in  mechanical  processes,  materials,  office  system,  esti- 
mating, accounting  and  principles  of  management  as  a  basis 
for  executive  positions.  The  tuition  fee  for  the  general  course 
of  eighty  weeks  is  I300.  Certain  elective  courses  in  design  are 
provided,  the  object  of  which  is  to  develop  a  taste  in  the  use 
of  type  and  page  arrangement.  These  courses  are  as  follows: 
Principles  of  Design — four  weeks,  four  hours  a  week;  Color — 
four  weeks,  five  hours  a  week.  There  is  also  a  course  in  Design 
Layout  and  Composing  Room  Management — four  weeks, 
160  hours.  This  is  a  special  course  for  the  executive,  salesman, 
office  man  and  high-class  compositor. 

The  Ohio  Mechanics  Institute  of  Cincinnati  maintains  a 
Department  of  Lithography.  A  two-years  course  is  provided, 
the  object  of  which  is  to  train  lithographers.  The  course  deals 
mainly  with  the  technique  of  work  on  the  stone.  A  certain 
amount  of  instruction  in  design  is  included  in  the  course  but 
not  of  sufficient  amount  to  train  artists.  The  tuition  fee  is 
$icxD  per  year.  A  cooperative  course  is  also  maintained  by  the 
department  in  which  the  students  study  at  the  Institute  and 
obtain  practical  experience  with  a  lithographic  firm  by  two- 
week  intervals.  This  course  consists  of  two  years  of  work, 
twelve  months  per  year.  The  student,  while  at  work  with  the 
lithographic  firm,  is  a  regular  employee  and  receives  wages 
depending  upon  his  ability. 

NEW  YORK  STATE  SCHOOL  OF  CLAY  WORKING 

AND  CERAMICS 

AT  ALFRED  UNIVERSITY, 

Alfred,  N.  Y. 

This  school,  founded  in  1900  for  the  purpose  of  training 
ceramic  engineers  and  producers  of  high-grade  ceramic  wares, 
is  a  department  of  Alfred  University.  It  is  controlled  by  a 
Board  of  Managers  which  is  appointed  annually  by  the  Trus- 
tees of  the  University.  The  school  is  in  the  immediate  charge 
of  a  director. 


SCHOOLS  OF  APPLIED  ART  IN  THE  U.  S.      305 

Tuition  is  free  to  residents  of  New  York  State.  In  addition 
to  laboratory,  matriculation  and  miscellaneous  fees  and 
deposits,  non-residents  are  charged  a  tuition  fee  of  $^^  per 
term,  for  the  regular  course  of  seventeen  hours  per  week. 
Students  taking  more  than  seventeen  hours  are  charged  $3 
for  each  additional  hour,  and  those  taking  fewer  than  eight 
hours  are  charged  $2  for  each  hour. 

Candidates  for  admission  must  be  at  least  sixteen  years 
and  must  possess  the  equivalent  of  a  high-school  education. 

A  four-year  course  in  Applied  Art  leading  to  a  degree  is 
offered.  This  course  includes  instruction  in  drawing,  model- 
ing, design,  ceramic  craft,  composition,  English,  modern 
language,  chemistry,  physical  training,  ethics  and  history  of 
art.  In  the  junior  and  senior  years  the  student  is  allowed  elect- 
ives  which  may  be  utilized  in  the  department  of  education 
and  in  further  study  in  college  subjects  or  in  additional  craft 
work.  A  course  in  "Textile  Crafts"  may  be  elected  which 
comprises  a  comprehensive  study  of  textiles. 

The  work  in  the  applied  art  courses  is  as  follows: 

Modeling — Production  of  pottery  by  hand  building,  wheel 
work;  plaster  forms  and  molds,  casting  vase  forms,  tile  mak- 
ing; glaze  preparation  and  use;  processes  of  pottery  decoration, 
incising,  embossing, slip  treatment,  inlaid  glazes,  kiln  manage- 
ment and  firing;  modeling  for  structural  wares;  production 
of  original  work. 

Ceramic  Craft — Production  of  pottery  with  special  refer- 
ence to  commercial  problems,  economy  of  production,  kiln 
management  and  mold  making,  the  problem  of  the  salesroom 
and  private  studio. 

Design — First  year,  design  and  color  theory.  Second  year, 
design  and  color  in  relation  to  pottery,  block  printing  and 
batik.  Third  year,  continuation  of  second  year.  Fourth  year, 
thesis  problems. 

Composition — Study  of  the  laws  of  composition.  The  use 
of  the  figure  in  decorative  modeling.  Unusual  decorative 
processes  for  pottery.  Fourth  year. 

Four  teachers  give  instruction  in  the  industrial  art  courses. 


3o6  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

All  of  these  teachers  are  capable  of  doing  commercial  work, 
and  they  often  sell  pieces  of  their  work  through  the  Guild,  an 
organization  carried  on  by  the  institution  for  mutual  benefit 
of  students  and  faculty. 

There  is  craft  work  in  connection  with  the  study  of  design 
in  all  of  the  design  subjects.  Considerable  of  this  work  and 
some  designs  are  sold  through  the  Guild.  Before  articles  are 
offered  for  sale  they  must  be  accepted  by  a  jury  which  passes 
on  all  products. 

There  is  some  cooperation  with  committees  or  individuals 
from  the  trades. 

None  of  the  former  graduates  are  reported  as  engaged  in 
industrial  design  in  commercial  establishments.  Many  of 
them,  however,  are  employed  in  studio  work  and  others  in 
free-lance  designing. 

In  1921-22  there  were  twenty-seven  students  in  the  Ap- 
plied Art  Course.  Diplomas  were  awarded  to  five  graduates 
from  this  course  in  1921.  Seventy-five  per  cent,  of  the  stu- 
dents in  the  school  take  the  Ceramic  Engineering  Course. 

SUMMARY 

As  has  been  suggested  before,  it  is  clear  that  the  American 
schools  offering  instruction  in  applied  art  that  may  be  con- 
sidered as  broad,  thorough  and  at  the  same  time  practical,  are 
but  few  in  number. 

Certain  facts  developed  from  the  studies  of  the  fifty-eight 
schools  that  were  visited  by  staff  representatives  are  of  some 
significance  in  regard  to  the  situation  as  a  whole.  In  the 
first  place,  it  is  clear  that  there  is  little  represented  by  the 
organization  or  methods  of  many  schools  that  is  calculated  to 
bring  a  knowledge  of  the  practical  requirements  of  a  definite 
field  of  design  before  the  students.  In  a  number  of  such  schools 
the  instructors  in  applied  design  have  had  no  contact  with 
commercial  work  through  practical  experience,  nor,  on  the 
other  hand,  are  they  maintaining  any  contact  at  the  present 
time  with  the  commercial  situation  through  the  making  of 
designs  or  illustrative  material  for  trade  purposes.  Further- 


SCHOOLS  OF  APPLIED  ART  IN  THE  U.  S.      307 

more,  comparatively  few  schools  in  the  country  have  relations 
either  with  individual  advisers  or  advisory  committees  from 
the  trades. 

Competent  knowledge  of  trade  conditions  may  be  brought 
to  bear  upon  class  instruction  in  one  of  several  ways.  It  may 
be  insured  by  the  practical  experience  and  trade  contacts  of 
the  instructors  or  it  may  be  insured  through  committees  or 
individuals  acting  as  advisers.  But  it  is  clear  that  in  many 
schools  of  the  country,  work  in  applied  design  is  being  given 
not  only  by  instructors  who  have  had  no  practical  experience 
and  are  maintaining  no  commercial  contacts,  but  where  there 
is  no  provision  for  gaining  the  practical  point  of  view  from 
committees  or  individuals.  This  is  undoubtedly  a  weakness  of 
our  present  situation  and  one  that  must  be  remedied  if  our 
schools  are  to  perform  their  part  in  training  workers  to  take 
practical  part  in  American  industries  and  assist  in  forwarding 
the  standards  of  these  industries. 

While  this  point  can  hardly  receive  too  strong  an  emphasis, 
it  is  necessary  to  state  with  equal  force  that  this  should  not 
mean  the  subordination  of  breadth  of  culture  to  narrow  trade 
instruction.  Two  problems  face  the  schools  of  applied  art: 
(i)  to  provide  a  sound  and  liberal  art  education,  and  (2)  to 
bring  that  education  into  practical  relation  with  commercial 
requirements.  Both  are  equally  essential  if  the  schools  are  to 
do  their  share  in  the  task  of  advancing  the  standards  of 
American  industrial  art. 

Opinions  given  by  school  authorities  as  to  the  desirable 
length  of  day-school  courses  in  the  applied  arts  are  as  follows : 
of  the  schools  under  private  auspices  four  mention  two  years 
and  one,  three  years;  opinions  expressed  from  the  other 
schools  vary  from  two  to  three  years  as  the  desirable  extent 
of  such  courses,  to  four  to  five  years.  The  largest  number 
mention  three  years,  three  to  four  years,  or  four  years. 

The  large  majority  of  school  representatives  recommend 
that  a  general  course  be  given  first  which  should  include 
drawing,  the  principles  of  design  and  cultural  subjects,  to  be 
followed  by  specialized  work  in  some  particular  field.  The 


3o8  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

representatives  of  only  three  institutions  favor  the  practice 
of  bringing  the  student  from  the  first  into  contact  with  the 
problems  and  material  of  the  chosen  field  of  design.  In  spite 
of  this  preponderance  of  opinion,  it  may  be  permissible  to 
point  out  that  there  is  much  to  be  said  as  to  the  value  of 
dealing  from  the  first  stages  of  art-school  training  with  the 
material  and  aspects  of  the  elected  field  of  design  as  a  means 
both  of  cultural  and  special  instruction.  Drawing  and  paint- 
ing are,  after  all,  but  tools  of  workmanship;  composition  and 
design  for  specific  purposes  are  the  ends  to  be  sought.  Every 
consideration  in  regard  to  holding  and  stimulating  the  interest 
of  the  workers  would  seem  to  incline  toward  the  continuous 
use  of  material  and  principles  related  to  the  special  fields  of 
industrial  art  toward  which  the  student  is  aiming. 

John  Dewey  has  said  that  the  way  to  prepare  for  life  is 
through  life  itself,and  his  greatest  contribution  to  educational 
thought  is  perhaps  the  principle  that  the  mastery  of  the  tools 
of  communication  can  best  be  gained  as  an  incident  in  deal- 
ing with  situations  of  real  social  interest  to  the  pupil.  Much 
of  our  educational  practice  has  been  based  on  the  idea  of 
acquiring  certain  skills  through  abstract  drills  with  the  idea 
that  these  will  later  be  put  into  application.  Today  we  are 
beginning  to  feel  that  for  mere  drill  should  be  substituted 
activities  that  possess  a  meaning  and  a  motive  to  the  learner. 
The  question  seems  worth  raising  whether  a  more  serious 
consideration  of  this  principle  might  not  lead  to  greater 
vitalization  of  much  of  our  art-school  instruction  in  the  fields 
of  drawing  and  other  subject  matter  commonly  treated  as 
mere  preparation. 

Another  consideration  that  arises  from  the  school  studies 
is  the  quality  of  the  young  people  who  enter  the  day  art 
schools  of  the  country.  As  a  general  rule  the  entrance  require- 
ments of  such  schools  allow  the  enrollment  of  any  applicant 
over  the  age  of  sixteen  or  seventeen  who  desires  to  study  art. 

Rigid  entrance  examinations  so  often  required  in  the  case 
of  the  higher  schools  of  applied  art  in  Europe  are  missing. 
This  situation,  allows  the  admission  of  many  students  pos- 


SCHOOLS  OF  APPLIED  ART  IN  THE  U.  S.       309 

sessing  neither  seriousness  of  purpose  nor  promise  of  talent. 
Under  present  conditions  of  supply  and  demand  it  is  difficult 
to  see  how  the  entrance  requirements  of  many  schools  of  the 
country  can  be  made  more  selective,  but  it  can  hardly  be  gain- 
said that  lack  of  strong  quality  in  our  art  students  consti- 
tutes a  decided  weakness  in  the  present  situation — a  weak- 
ness which  it  is  to  be  hoped  the  strongest  of  our  institutions 
will  find  themselves  able  to  remedy  gradually  by  raising 
their  standards  of  admission.  Such  an  increase  in  standards 
of  admission,  it  is  hardly  necessary  to  say,  should  not  be 
through  the  imposition  of  academic  requirements,  but  through 
the  development  of  methods  which  will  assure  a  higher  stand- 
ard of  artistic  promise. 

The  effect  of  a  poor  quality  of  student  is  not  only  felt  in  the 
earlier  stages  of  art-school  work  but,  inasmuch  as  many  such 
remain  in  the  school  more  as  a  matter  of  pastime  than  for 
hard  work,  they  are  often  a  drag  throughout  the  entire 
course,  particularly  in  the  later  stages.  Since  truly  effective 
instruction  in  advanced  classes  must  be  largely  an  individual 
matter,  small  classes,  unencumbered  by  weak  and  ill  adapted 
material,  are  here  an  essential  condition  for  satisfactory  work. 

Scholarship  provisions  in  the  American  schools  of  art  have 
been  but  little  developed.  A  few  schools,  the  Pennsylvania 
Museum  and  School  of  Industrial  Art,  the  Rhode  Island 
School  of  Design,  and  the  Maryland  Institute,  although 
organized  on  private  foundations,  receive  money  grants  in 
the  form  of  scholarships  from  the  states  and  cities  in  which 
they  are  located.  In  the  case  of  the  Pennsylvania  Museum 
School,  the  amount  contributed  from  each  source  is  sub- 
stantial, amounting  to  $56,250  from  the  state  and  $30,000 
from  the  city.  In  only  a  few  of  the  schools  have  scholarship 
provisions  been  made  by  the  manufacturers.  Among  schools 
receiving  such  scholarships  are  the  Rhode  Island  School  of 
Design,  Wentworth  Institute  of  Boston,  and  the  Mechanics 
Institute  of  Cincinnati. 

An  important  movement  in  this  direction  is  represented 
by  the  activities  of  the  School  Art  League  of  New  York  City. 


3IO  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

The  League  provides  a  numberof  scholarships  (thirty-five  dur- 
ing theyear  1921-22)  which  are  awarded  to  students  in  the  high- 
schools  of  the  city  in  order  to  allow  them  to  continue  their 
studies  in  one  of  the  art  schools  of  the  city.  In  carrying  out 
this  plan,  the  schools  have  reduced  their  tuition  for  these 
scholarship  students,  leaving  only  a  fraction  of  the  expense 
to  be  borne  by  the  League. 


INDUSTRIAL  ART  EDUCATION 
IN  EUROPE 

INSTRUCTION  IN  APPLIED  ART 
IN  ENGLAND 

At  various  periods  during  the  last  century  English  public 
opinion  became  conscious  of  the  inferiority  of  native  artistic 
goods  when  compared  with  continental  products,  and  de- 
manded that  educational  measures  be  developed  to  over- 
come the  deficiency.  In  the  early  part  of  the  last  century  the 
cry  was  first  heard,  and  resulted  in  the  establishment  of 
schools  of  art,  but  it  was  not  until  1835  that  the  first  govern- 
mental inquiry  into  the  condition  of  English  manufactures 
was  set  on  foot.  In  that  year  a  committee  was  appointed  "to 
inquire  into  the  best  means  of  extending  a  knowledge  of  the 
arts  and  of  the  principles  of  design  among  the  people,  (espe- 
cially the  manufacturing  population)  of  the  country;  and  also 
to  inquire  into  the  constitution,  management,  and  efforts  of 
institutions  connected  with  the  arts."  The  report  of  the  com- 
mittee resulted  in  the  establishment  of  the  School  of  Design 
(now  the  Royal  College  of  Art),  which  has  played  a  dominant 
role  in  art  education  in  England. 

In  1840  the  government  extended  its  assistance  to  the 
manufacturing  districts,  and  authorized  a  grant  of  £10,000 
towards  the  formation  and  outfit  of  schools  of  design  in  the 
large  towns. 

In  1 851  the  International  Exposition  in  Kensington  brought 
home  to  the  public  in  a  larger  way  than  ever  before  the  artis- 
tic inferiority  of  English  products.  This  led  to  the  reorgani- 
zation and  considerable  expansion  of  the  School  of  Design. 
Another  result  was  the  introduction  of  craft  work  into  this 
school  and  later  into  other  schools.  By  the  time  of  the  Exhi- 
bition of  1862  a  marked  improvement  was  observed  in  the 
artistic  industries. 

From  this  time  until  the  present  the  efforts  of  those  inter- 


312  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

ested  in  the  furtherance  of  art  education  have  been  directed 
towards  evolving  an  organization  based  upon  central  govern- 
mental control,  the  creation  of  an  effective  curriculum  and  a 
system  of  governmental  pecuniary  aid  to  art  schools  and 
classes. 

The  report  of  the  committee  of  1835  suggested  pecuniary 
aid  be  given  by  the  government  to  encourage  art  instruc- 
tion. This  suggestion  resulted  after  1851  in  a  system  peculiar 
to  English  school  administration  and  known  as  "grants  in 
aid"  which  has  had  a  marked  influence  upon  art  instruction 
in  England.  As  originally  instituted,  it  consisted  in  granting 
to  each  school  or  class  giving  instruction  in  the  arts  and 
sciences  an  amount  of  money  based  upon  certain  conditions. 
In  general  these  conditions  required  that  the  school  should 
meet  certain  requirements  in  equipment  and  enrollment, 
should  not  be  conducted  for  private  profit,  must  have  an 
adequate  and  efficient  teaching  staff,  that  satisfactory  prog- 
ress must  be  shown  by  the  pupils,  and  that  the  curriculum 
must  be  adapted  to  the  conditions  of  the  locality  and  must  be 
approved  by  the  national  central  body  of  control — now  the 
Board  of  Education.  The  Board  has  supervision  of  all  school 
work  in  the  kingdom. 

The  more  specific  requirements  were  that  the  rates  pay- 
able should  be  determined  by  the  Board  upon  consideration 
of  the  subjects  taught,  the  extent  to  which  organized  and 
continuous  courses  of  instruction  were  effectively  carried 
out,  the  qualifications  of  the  teacher,  and  a  minimum  require- 
ment of  attendance  upon  the  pupil's  part.  The  ordinary  rate 
of  grant  was  2s.  6d.  to  3s.  6d.  per  pupil,  which  rate  might  be 
increased  up  to  15s.  for  special  excellence. 

In  administering  this  particular  branch  the  Board  of 
Education  employs  a  staff  of  inspectors.  These  inspectors 
visit  the  classes  annually,  make  note  to  the  extent  to  which  the 
requirements  of  the  Board  are  being  met  and  check  up  the 
attendance  records.  Formerly  during  a  certain  period  of  each 
year  throughout  the  kingdom  examinations  were  held  in 
each  class  according  to  a  syllabus  sent  out  by  the  Board. 


INDUSTRIAL  ART  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE    313 

These  examinations  were  conducted  under  conditions  of 
strict  local  supervision  and  the  exercises  were  sent  to  London 
to  be  rated  and  these  ratings  formed  the  chief  basis  upon  which 
grants  were  made. 

In  recent  years  a  better  method  of  estimating  the  amount 
of  grants  than  that  outlined  above  has  been  put  into  effect. 
An  inclusive  annual  grant  is  now  paid  by  the  Board.  It  was 
first  based  upon  the  average  amount  of  the  grants  received 
by  the  school  for  the  last  three  years  under  the  old  method. 
The  rate  is  now  assessed  every  three  or  four  years  upon  the 
results  of  annual  and  special  "full"  inspections.  The  assess- 
ment is  based  upon  the  work  and  attendance  record  of  a  class 
as  a  whole  instead  of  upon  the  old  examination  basis  of  indi- 
vidual students.  This  system  has  completely  supplanted  the 
older  method. 

The  grants  by  Parliament  of  pecuniary  aid  to  art  instruc- 
tion were  first  made  with  the  hope  that  this  would  be  a 
temporary  measure  and  that  the  schools  would  become  self- 
supporting.  This  did  not  prove  to  be  the  case,  and  it  is  now 
felt  that  this  is  hardly  desirable,  as  the  schools  would  then  be 
without  government  control.  It  is  held  that,  while  such  con- 
trol may  at  times  be  injudiciously  directed,  it  at  least  gives 
a  broader  support  to  instruction  which  would  otherwise  be 
limited  to  local  appreciation  and  even  caprice. 

This  policy  of  pecuniary  aid  has  resulted  in  bringing  art 
instruction  to  a  large  number  of  workers  and  craftsmen  as 
well  as  amateurs  in  contradistinction  to  the  policy  of  the 
continental  art  schools  which  seek  to  develop  a  select  class  of 
designers.  Of  the  large  numbers  receiving  art  instruction  a 
considerable  proportion — atone  time  estimated  at  twenty-five 
per  cent. — are  women  amateurs.  This  large  proportion  is  not 
considered  a  misdirection  of  effort  inasmuch  as  such  students 
may  introduce  a  leaven  of  art  appreciation  in  the  purchasing 
public. 

An  element  of  much  importance  in  maintaining  high  stand- 
ards in  the  schools  of  art  and  in  keeping  them  in  touch  with 
the  demands  of  industry  is  the  inspection  and  report  made  to 


314  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

the  Board  of  Education  upon  each  school,  once  in  three  or 
four  years,  by  a  group  of  inspectors.  This  group  consists  of 
several  members  of  the  regular  Inspection  Staff  of  the  Board 
of  Education,  joined  with  persons  prominent  in  the  fine  and 
applied  arts.  Reports  made  by  these  committees  are  very 
careful  and  comprehensive.  They  are  critical  and  suggestive 
in  nature  and  provide  a  valuable  opportunity  for  bringing 
expert  opinion  of  the  highest  order  to  bear  upon  the  work  of 
the  schools. 

The  formation  of  local  advisory  committees  is  encouraged 
by  the  Board  and  they  are  now  very  generally  organized. 
Such  committees  inspect  the  work  of  the  classes  at  frequent 
intervals  during  the  year  and  confer  with  the  directing  officers 
regarding  the  same. 

Drawing  is  taught  in  all  elementary  schools  throughout 
England  under  the  supervision  of  the  Board  of  Education, 
which  issues  syllabi,  thus  tending  towards  uniformity  of 
instruction  throughout  the  kingdom.  The  motive  is  to  teach 
children  to  see  correctly,  to  draw  carefully  what  they  see,  and 
to  cultivate  their  sense  of  beauty.  The  time  given  to  the  sub- 
ject is  from  one  hour  per  week  in  the  earlier  grades  to  elective 
opportunities  of  three  hours  per  week  in  the  higher  grades. 
No  special  equipment  is  provided  except  in  the  higher  grades 
in  the  large  cities,  where  special  rooms  are  assigned.  In  the 
smaller  schools  the  work  is  conducted  by  the  regular  class 
teacher  or  by  a  peripatetic  teacher.  In  the  larger  cities  special 
drawing  teachers  are  employed.  The  work  is  now  coordinated 
with  handicrafts.  Few  textbooks  are  used,  but  the  work  is 
based  upon  a  syllabus  issued  by  the  Board  of  Education  or 
upon  a  syllabus  prepared  by  the  school  authorities  and  ap- 
proved by  the  Board.  The  191 8  Report  of  the  Education 
Committee  of  London  notes  that  "the  work  of  the  earlier 
part  of  the  period  manifests  a  strong  reaction  against  the 
symmetrical  pencil  drawings  of  former  days.  Drawing  from 
the  object  with  crayon  and  brush  became  universal,  and  was 
regarded  by  some  as  the  only  legitimate  form  of  art  instruc- 
tion. This  narrow  view  is  gradually  being  discarded  and  a 


INDUSTRIAL  ART  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE    315 

wider  and  more  varied  art  syllabus,  including  simple  designs 
and  the  despised  pencil  work,  is  now  being  followed." 

Drawing  of  plants  and  flowers  and  other  objects  of  nature 
now  enter  largely  into  the  work  given  in  the  elementary 
schools.  The  classes  in  day  schools  number  more  women  than 
men,  whereas  in  evening  classes  the  greater  number  are  young 
men. 

A  considerable  number  of  the  art  teachers  of  England  re- 
ceive their  training  at  the  Royal  College  of  Art  and  are, 
therefore,  well  equipped  with  technical  knowledge  and  artis- 
tic judgment.  The  fact  that  this  college  is  largely  recruited 
through  scholarships  tends  to  produce  a  body  of  students 
possessing  art  ability  above  the  average.  As  the  training 
given  at  the  college  is  very  thorough,  there  results  an  efficient 
body  of  teachers  for  supplying  the  needs  of  instruction  in 
the  art  schools  of  the  country.  Details  of  the  methods  and 
courses  pursued  at  the  Royal  College  of  Arts  are  given  else- 
where in  this  report. 

The  scheme  of  "art-pupil  teachers"  pursued  in  the  schools 
of  the  country  works  to  advantage  in  two  ways:  it  gives  the 
pupil  a  chance  to  develop  his  powers  by  practical  experience 
and  it  also  affords  a  supply  of  elementary  art  teachers  to 
local  schools.  The  art-pupil  teacher  is  required  to  devote  not 
more  than  one-third  of  his  time  to  teaching  and  the  remainder 
to  his  studies.  One-half  of  his  salary  as  a  teacher  is  paid  by  the 
Board  of  Education  and  one-half  by  the  local  authority. 

Since  the  founding  of  the  Royal  College  of  Art  industrial 
art  training  has  been  considered  of  increasing  importance 
and  the  large  number  of  art  schools  and  classes,  and  schools  of 
arts  and  crafts  attest  to  the  recognition  of  this  practical  need 
and  indicate  the  importance  of  these  institutions  in  supply- 
ing training  to  designers,  craftsmen  and  teachers. 

The  technical  instructors  in  some  of  the  schools  are  prac- 
tical men  recruited  from  the  industries.  The  students  are 
drawn  from  all  the  various  social  and  industrial  strata  of 
English  life.  They  enter  upon  their  studies  at  ages  varying 
from  twelve  to  twenty-five  years.  In  most  schools  no  previous 


3i6  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

preparation  is  demanded,  but  the  pupil  must  possess  a  suffi- 
cient general  knowledge  to  profit  by  the  instruction  given. 

The  aim  of  most  English  arts  and  crafts  schools,  "to  make 
the  workman  a  better  workman,"  has  been  largely  realized. 
There  is  still  some  tendency  to  consider  the  machine  as  an 
enemy  to  the  production  of  anything  beautiful,  an  attitude 
which  is  being  combated  by  attempts  to  give  the  pupils  a 
more  complete  knowledge  of  modern  machine  possibilities 
and  requirements.  In  1916  the  Board  of  Education  formulated 
and  issued  a  special  scheme  to  organize  instruction  in  these 
matters. 

An  estimate  of  the  distribution  of  the  graduates  can  hardly 
be  made,  as  few  of  the  schools  keep  records  of  the  subsequent 
occupations  of  their  graduates,  though  the  practice  of  keep- 
ing such  records  is  growing.  Unquestionably  the  graduates  of 
these  schools  form  a  large  percentage  of  the  designers  in  the 
industries. 

The  arts  and  crafts  movement  as  typified  by  the  Arts  and 
Crafts  Society  has  had  little  influence  upon  raising  the 
general  level  of  design  of  ordinary  commercial  goods.  Its 
main  result  has  been  to  stimulate  a  comparatively  small 
group  of  men  and  women  to  produce  "applied  art,"  such  as 
stained-glass  windows,  work  in  silver,  needlework,  book- 
binding and  the  like,  but  at  this  point  the  movement  has 
apparently  stopped.  This,  it  may  be  noted,  is  in  contrast  with 
the  history  of  such  work  in  Germany,  where  through  govern- 
ment encouragement  and  liberal  expenditure  of  money,  in- 
struction in  the  arts  and  crafts  is  not  only  carried  on  very 
effectively  in  the  schools  but,  what  is  more  important,  exerts 
a  very  large  influence  in  the  production  of  the  factory  and  the 
workshop. 

As  possibly  indicative  of  the  current  trend  in  England, 
attention  is  called  to  the  action  of  the  municipal  educational 
authorities  of  Leeds,  who  specifically  require  that  all  art 
education  in  the  schools  of  the  city  must  have  for  its  purpose 
the  advancement  of  the  industrial  arts. 

A  considerable  use  is  made  of  art  material  in  museums. 


INDUSTRIAL  ART  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE    317 

These  institutions  are  of  a  high  standard,  those  of  London 
being  specially  noteworthy.  There  are  also  good  collections 
to  be  found  in  many  schools. 

The  Board  of  Education  has  made  a  practice  for  many 
years  of  sending  on  loan  from  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum 
collections  of  examples  to  art  classes  which  practice  it  is  now 
extending  to  secondary  schools  throughout  the  kingdom. 

The  methods  employed  in  most  applied-art  schools  are 
excellent  and  progressive  and  lead  one  to  expect  sound  results 
from  the  pupils. 

London  has  a  number  of  excellent  applied-art  schools, 
among  which  the  Royal  College  of  Art,  the  Central  School  of 
Arts  and  Crafts,  and  Camberwell  School  of  Arts  and  Crafts 
rank  first  and  exert  a  widespread  influence.  Some  of  the 
larger  cities  also  conduct  schools  of  marked  excellence.  All  of 
these  schools  are  finely  equipped  for  their  purpose,  ably 
staffed,  and  well  conducted. 

According  to  the  Report  of  the  Board  of  Education  for 
1919-20,  there  were  in  England  183  schools  of  art,  nineteen 
branch  schools  of  art,  and  forty-six  art  classes  working  under  the 
Board's  regulations.  Proposals  for  special  courses  in  design 
applied  to  manufacturers  are  constantly  being  received  by  the 
Board. 

The  attitude  of  the  English  manufacturer  towards  art 
training  has  generally  been  one  of  indifference  and,  at  its 
worst,  one  of  open  hostility.  There  are,  however,  a  number  of 
far-seeing  manufacturers  who  are  convinced  of  the  practical 
value  of  industrial  art  education  and  who  give  whole-hearted 
support  and  cooperation.  In  a  number  of  industries  manufac- 
turers have  long  seen  the  need  for  better  art  training  of  their 
young  people  and  have  developed  relations  with  the  schools 
for  this  purpose. 

At  the  outbreak  of  the  war,  plans  were  being  formulated  to 
remodel  the  scheme  of  arts-and-crafts  education  and  place  it 
upon  a  basis  to  meet  more  effectively  the  competition  of  con- 
tinental methods,  more  especially  those  of  Germany.  The  con- 
viction had  again  taken  hold  that  the  position  occupied  by 


3i8  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

England  in  certain  crafts  and  manufactures  was  being  suc- 
cessfully disputed  by  Germany.  One  result  of  this  feeling  was 
the  formation,  in  191 5,  of  the  Design  and  Industries  Associa- 
tion. This  appears  to  be  a  serious  attempt  to  enlist  the  cooper- 
ation of  manufacturers,  artists,  designers,  and  art  educators 
in  placing  English  industrial  art  upon  a  higher  plane. 

The  immediate  realization  of  the  plans  for  improvement 
referred  to  above  was  interfered  with  by  war  conditions,  but 
present  indications  are  that  earnest  efforts  are  being  made 
towards  increasing  the  practical  application  and  efficiency  of 
industrial  art  education. 

The  conditions  surrounding  the  use  of  designs  in  industry 
are  somewhat  similar  to  those  existing  in  the  United  States. 
A  large  number  of  designs,  especially  those  for  cotton  prints, 
are  imported  from  France.  Some  large  firms  have  designing 
offices  in  Paris  employing  French  designers.  The  proportion 
of  free-lance  designers  to  those  employed  steadily  is  approx- 
imately estimated  at  ten  per  cent.  Free-lance  designers,  if  at 
all  successful,  receive  a  high  compensation  for  their  labor. 

The  local  educational  administrative  authority  in  England 
is  commonly  invested  in  Education  Committees  which  gener- 
ally work  through  a  number  of  sub-committees. 

The  method  followed  by  the  County  of  London  is  that 
generally  in  use  in  other  cities  of  the  kingdom. 

The  London  County  Council  is  the  local  authority  respon- 
sible for  promoting  and  coordinating  all  forms  of  education 
within  the  County  of  London.  Practically  the  whole  of  ele- 
mentary education  in  London  is  under  the  Council's  control. 
In  the  various  branches  of  higher  education  the  Council  is 
associated  with  several  other  authorities,  such  as  the  Univer- 
sity of  London,  the  City  Companies,  the  governing  bodies  of 
endowed  secondary  schools  and  the  governing  bodies  of 
polytechnics  and  technical  institutes.  In  the  promotion  of 
the  different  forms  of  education  it  is  the  object  of  the  Council 
to  work  in  cooperation  with  the  other  agencies  that  are 
engaged  in  educational  work  and  to  make  sure  that  there  is 
no  overlapping  or  duplication  of  effort.  The  Council  works 


INDUSTRIAL  ART  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE    319 

throughout  in  close  association  with  the  Board  of  Education, 
which  is  the  central  authority  entrusted  by  Parliament  with 
the  duty  of  the  supervision  of  education  throughout  the 
country. 

All  matters  relating  to  the  exercise  of  the  Council's  powers 
under  the  Education  Acts,  except  the  power  of  raising  a  rate 
or  borrowing  money,  stand  referred  by  statute  to  the  Educa- 
tion Committee  of  the  Council. 

A  large  share  of  the  work  of  technical  and  art  instruction 
is  carried  on  in  polytechnic  and  technical  institutes,  which 
may  be  divided  into  three  classes: 

(i)  Those  aided  by  the  London  County  Council. 

(2)  Those  maintained  by  the  London  County  Council. 

(3)  Those  receiving  no  aid  from  the  London  County 
Council. 

The  institutions  vary  greatly  in  size.  Thus,  the  Regent  Street 
Polytechnic  in  normal  times  has  over  12,000  students  and 
receives  a  maintenance  grant  from  the  Council  amounting 
to  £14,200  a  year,  while  one  or  two  of  the  institutions  have 
less  than  one  hundred  students  and  receive  correspondingly 
smaller  grants  from  the  Council. 

The  institutions  aided  by  the  Council  receive  from  it 
building,  equipment  and  maintenance  grants.  Apart  from 
the  financial  assistance  given  by  the  Council,  their  income  is 
made  up  of  Board  of  Education  grants,  endowments,  grants 
from  the  City  Parochial  Foundation,  students'  fees,  and 
voluntary  subscriptions.  Each  institution  has  a  governing 
body  or  committee  on  which  the  Council  is  represented. 

The  institutions  maintained  by  the  Council  are  eighteen 
in  number.  The  following  institutions  which  afford  instruc- 
tion in  applied  art  are  among  these:  The  Central  School  of 
Arts  and  Crafts  and  the  Camberwell  School  of  Arts  and 
Crafts,  which  provide  instruction  in  a  great  variety  of  artis- 
tic crafts;  the  Hackney  Institute,  which  deals  with  engineer- 
ing subjects  and  has  also  an  art  school,  and  other  depart- 
ments; the  Shoreditch  Technical  Institute,  which  provides 
chiefly  for  the  furniture  trades;  and  the  School  of  Photo- 


320  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

Engraving  and  Lithography  (Bolt  Court,  Fleet  Street),  for 
the  photo-process  and  allied  trades. 

The  Council  is  assisted  in  the  management  of  its  schools  by 
Advisory  Sub-Committees  and  Consultative  Committees. 
The  Trade  Consultative  Committees  advise  the  Council  in 
connection  with  the  detailed  administration  of  the  work  of 
instruction  as  related  to  the  respective  industries.  The  Advi- 
sory Sub-Committees  are  local,  and  each  is  attached  to  some 
particular  institute  maintained  by  the  Council.  As  regards 
the  Consultative  Committees,  some  are  attached  to  particular 
institutions;  in  addition  to  these  there  are  Central  Consult- 
ative Committees  for  Engineering,  Chemistry,  and  Banking 
and  for  the  Book-production  Trades  (including  the  Bookbind- 
ing Trades  and  the  Printing  and  Allied  Trades),  the  Gold- 
smiths', Silversmiths',  Jewellers'  and  Allied  Trades,  the 
Furnishing  Trades  and  Men's  Tailoring  Trades.  Each  Central 
Consultative  Committee  consists  of  three  groups  of  trade  ex- 
perts, directly  representing  respectively  the  Council  itself,  the 
Associations  of  Employers,  and  the  corresponding  trade 
unions  or  federations  of  allied  unions. 

The  great  majority  of  the  students  who  are  in  attendance 
at  the  various  technical  institutions  are  evening  students  who 
are  engaged  in  commercial  or  industrial  pursuits  in  the  day- 
time. The  evening  trade  classes  which  constitute  the  bulk  of 
the  evening  work,  are,  as  a  rule,  confined  to  bona  fide  workers 
in  the  respective  trades.  The  fees  charged  for  admission  to 
evening  classes  in  these  institutions  are  as  follows: 

Persons  employed  in  trades  or  occupations  upon  which  the 
teaching  of  the  school  has  a  distinct  bearing  are  admitted  to 
all  or  any  of  the  classes  of  the  school  which  they  are  eligible 
to  join,  on  payment  of  fees  at  the  following  rates — if  earning 
over  30s.  a  week,  los.  the  session;  if  earning  30s.  or  less  a 
week,  4s.  6d.  the  session. 

Persons  not  employed  in  trades  or  occupations  upon  which 
the  teaching  of  the  school  has  a  distinct  bearing  may  be  ad- 
mitted to  the  school  on  payment  of  los.  6d.  a  term  or  a 
guineajthe  session;  but  students  below  the  age  of  sixteen,  if 


INDUSTRIAL  ART  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE     321 

qualified  for  admission  to  the  School  and  furnishing  satis- 
factory evidence  that  their  work  is  of  sufficient  merit,  may 
be  admitted  on  payment  of  4s.  6d.  for  the  session. 

In  the  evening  school  one  fee  admits  to  all  the  classes 
which  the  student  is  permitted  to  join. 

Persons  under  twenty-one  years  of  age  qualified  for  admis- 
sion to  the  institutes  and  bona  fide  engaged  in  the  trade  are 
admitted  free  on  production  of  certificates  from  their  employ- 
ers, or  on  showing  copies  of  indentures. 

The  day  work  carried  on  in  technical  institutions  covers  a 
wide  field  and  includes  courses  for  students  working  for  uni- 
versity degrees  andother  advanced  courses  aswell  as  art  classes 
for  training  designers,  teachers  and  skilled  craftsmen.  Several 
of  these  institutions  also  contain  junior  technical  day  schools 
or  trade  schools  which  provide  a  pre-apprenticeship  training 
for  boys  and  girls. 

In  order  to  assist  boys  and  girls  from  the  elementary 
schools  to  proceed  to  these  schools,  the  Council  has  estab- 
lished a  certain  number  of  trade  scholarships,  which  provide 
free  education  together  with  maintenance  grants. 

The  Council  in  191 8  introduced  a  new  scale  of  salaries  for 
principals  and  other  teachers  in  technical  institutes.  The  scale 
for  principals  is  divided  into  groups,  the  minimum  salary 
in  the  lowest  group  being  £400  and  the  maximum  in  the 
highest  group  being  £1,200.  The  salaries  for  heads  of  de- 
partments range  from  £400  to  £800  in  the  case  of  men,  and 
from  £300  to  £600  in  the  case  of  women.  The  salaries  of 
whole-time  lecturers  and  teachers  range  from  £150  to  £450  in 
the  case  of  men,  and  from  £120  to  £300  in  the  case  of  women. 

At  the  same  time  a  revised  scale  of  salaries  for  principals, 
responsible  masters  and  mistresses,  and  other  teachers  in 
evening  institutes,  was  put  into  effect.  The  salaries  of  princi- 
pals and  whole-time  responsible  masters  range  from  £350  to 
£600,  and  of  whole-time  responsible  mistresses  from  £300  to 
£400.  The  payments  to  lecturers  and  instructors  range  from 
los.  an  evening  to  £1  is.  an  evening,  while  special  payments 
of  a  higher  amount  are  made  in  special  cases. 


322  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

ROYAL  COLLEGE  OF  ART 

South  Kensington,  London 

In  1836  the  House  of  Commons  appointed  a  select  Com- 
mittee on  Arts  and  Manufacture  to  inquire  into  the  best 
means  of  extending  a  knowledge  of  the  arts  and  of  the  prin- 
ciples of  design  among  the  people  (especially  the  manufactur- 
ing population  of  the  country),  also  to  inquire  into  the  con- 
stitutional management  and  effects  of  institutions  connected 
with  the  arts.  The  Committee  reported  that  the  arts  had 
received  little  encouragement  in  England.  As  a  result  of  this 
report  a  School  of  Design  was  opened  at  Somerset  House  on 
June  1st,  1837. 

In  1849  ^  select  committee  produced  a  report  wherein  they . 
described  the  maintenance  of  the  School  of  Design  to  be  an 
object  of  national  significance  and  urged  the  importance  of 
selecting  men  practically  acquainted  with  designing  for  in- 
structors, admitting  at  the  same  time  the  failure  of  the  present 
school  of  arts  to  produce  any  effect  upon  the  manufacturers. 
In  1 851  the  first  exhibition  of  pupils'  work  was  held. 

In  1852,  as  a  result  of  the  condition  of  British  industrial 
art  revealed  by  the  International  Exposition  of  1851,  the 
school  was  reorganized  and  its  objects  defined  as  follows: 

First,  general  and  elementary  instruction  in  art  as  a  branch 
of  national  education  among  all  classes,  to  improve  the  art 
judgment  in  producer  and  consumer. 

Second,  to  advance  instruction  in  art. 

Third,  the  application  of  art  to  the  improvement  of  manu- 
facture and  the  establishment  of  museums. 

In  1857  the  school  was  transferred  to  South  Kensington 
and  the  South  Kensington  Museum  was  opened.  The  nucleus 
of  its  enormous  collection  consisted  of  the  art  objects  exhib- 
ited at  the  great  exhibition  of  1 851 .  The  art  school  was  lodged 
in  the  rear  of  the  building. 

In  1859  the  school  is  described  as  having  as  its  primary 
purpose  the  supply  of  art  teachers  for  all  schools  in  the  coun- 
try. In  1836  National  Scholarships  for  Industrial  Students 


INDUSTRIAL  ART  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE    ^'^2 

were  established  and  the  school  changed  its  name  to  The 
National  Art  Training  School,  and  in  1897  the  name  was 
again  changed  to  The  Royal  College  of  Art. 

In  the  year  1900  a  scheme  was  drawn  up  for  the  reorgani- 
zation of  the  school  which  embodied  the  following  features: 
The  appointment  of  a  Council  of  Art,  and  the  return  of  the 
school  to  its  original  purpose,  namely,  direct  promotion  of 
the  study  of  design.  At  this  time  the  work  of  the  college  was 
reorganized  on  the  basis  of  four  schools,  each  under  its  own 
professor,  dealing  respectively  with  architecture,  painting, 
ornament  and  design,  sculpture  and  modeling.  The  policy  of 
encouraging  technical  work  in  the  so-called  craft  classes  as  an 
essential  part  of  the  curriculum,  especially  for  students  of 
design,  was  also  laid  down  at  this  time. 

The  Royal  College  of  Art  is  supported  by  the  state  and 
administered  by  the  Board  of  Education,  which  consists  of  the 
President,  Permanent  Secretary,  Parliamentary  Secretary, 
Assistant  Secretary,  Chief  Woman  Inspector,  and  a  Com- 
mittee of  Visitors  of  four. 

The  Committee  of  Visitors  consists  of  representatives  of 
both  artists  and  manufacturers  who  exert  a  slight  influence 
on  the  character  of  the  various  courses. 

The  College  is  well  equipped  with  classrooms,  lecture  halls 
and  workshops,  and  has  at  its  disposal  the  collections  of  the 
South  Kensington  Museum,  which  are  almost  unlimited  in 
their  wealth  of  material,  and  of  a  quality  and  scope  eminently 
suited  to  furnish  the  best  inspiration  for  industrial  designers. 

The  teaching  staff  consists  of  a  principal,  a  headmaster, 
five  professors,  three  instructors,  two  assistant  instructors, 
two  assistants,  seven  teachers,  two  assistant  teachers,  one 
demonstrator,  one  lecturer.  The  director  is  appointed  by  the 
Board  of  Education.  The  teaching  staff  is  selected  by  the 
Committee  of  Four  and  the  director,  and  is  appointed  by  the 
Board  of  Education.  The  selection  is  largely  from  graduates 
of  the  college  and  they  are  generally  full-time  teachers.  The 
salaries  range  from  £400  to  £1,250  per  year. 

The  teachers  of  design  are  experienced  persons  possessing 


324  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

a  knowledge  of  the  technical  requirements  of  the  craft  for 
which  they  instruct.  Studios  are  provided  for  professors  and 
teachers  to  enable  them  to  continue  the  practice  of  their  pro- 
fession and  craft. 

The  number  of  students  is  at  present  between  200  and  250. 
About  one-half  of  these  come  from  London  or  from  the  urban 
districts  of  three  large  industrial  counties,  namely,  Yorkshire, 
Lancashire  and  Staffordshire;  the  rest  come  in  small  numbers 
from  other  counties  or  occasionally  from  Scotland,  Ireland 
or  other  parts  of  the  British  Dominion.  From  time  to  time  a 
foreign  student  is  admitted.  The  age  range  of  the  students  on 
admission  is  a  wide  one,  extending  from  fifteen  to  over  forty 
years.  Aspirants  are  required  to  submit  their  work  according 
to  the  branch  of  instruction  they  desire  to  enter.  Fees  are  £25 
for  the  complete  session  and  £12  los.  for  one  term.  External 
students  in  the  craft  classes  pay  £2  2s.  per  term.  Fee-paying 
students  who  show  themselves  possessed  of  more  than  ordi- 
nary ability  are  recommended  by  the  principal  for  free  tuition. 

One  of  the  most  significant  facts  in  connection  with  the 
college  is  that  the  student  body  is  largely  recruited  through 
scholarships.  Six  National  Scholarships  of  £90  each,  paid  by 
the  government,  are  awarded  to  persons  in  the  industries  who 
make  the  best  showing  in  examinations  held  in  the  art  schools 
throughout  the  country  in  May  and  June  each  year.  These 
scholarships  are  given  for  three  years  and  may  be  extended  to 
four  or  five  years  according  to  the  progress  of  the  scholar.  Ten 
scholarships  called  Royal  Exhibitions,  amounting  to  £90  a 
year  for  a  period  of  three  years,  are  awarded  by  the  Board  of 
Education  and  are  open  to  all  students  irrespective  of  their 
calling.  These  scholarships  are  competed  for  at  the  Board's 
examinations,  held  annually  in  all  the  art  schools.  Fifteen 
free  scholarships  are  also  awarded  annually  by  the  Board  of 
Education  to  candidates  who  compete  for  the  above  scholar- 
ships and  whose  performance  is  creditable  but  not  up  to  the 
standard  required  for  the  National  Scholarships  and  Royal 
Exhibitions. 

Another  form  of  scholarships  receives  the  term  Local  Exhi- 


INDUSTRIAL  ART  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE    31^5 

bitions.  In  case  a  local  authority  contributes  half  the  value  of 
the  scholarships  of  £90  per  annum  for  three  years,  the  Board 
of  Education  agrees  to  contribute  the  remainder.  These 
scholarships  are  also  competed  for  at  the  Board  examination 
held  in  the  art  schools  annually  throughout  the  kingdom. 

There  are  also  upwards  of  sixty  County  Council  Scholar- 
ships awarded  to  students  in  the  different  art  schools  of  the 
kingdom  by  County  Councils.  These  scholarships  are  often 
given  to  persons  who  have  been  attending  evening  schools  or 
Saturday  afternoon  classes.  They  are  also  for  £90  and  run 
for  three  years  which  may  be  extended  to  four.  Finally,  there 
are  a  number  of  Royal  College  of  Art  Scholarships  of  £90 
each  awarded  for  one  or  two  years.  These  scholarships  are 
open  to  students  already  in  the  college  who  have  attended 
for  a  period  of  not  less  than  two  years.  They  are  usually 
awarded  to  students  who  have  entered  the  college  upon  one 
of  the  above-named  scholarships,  the  tenure  of  which  has 
expired,  to  enable  them  to  remain  at  the  college  for  a  fourth 
or  fifth  year. 

These  scholarships  exercise  a  strong  selective  influence  in 
the  matter  of  admission  to  the  Royal  College  of  Art.  They 
operate  to  bring  advanced  training  in  applied  art  to  specially 
able  young  persons  throughout  the  kingdom. 

Each  professor  in  the  four  courses  of  architecture,  painting, 
engraving,  sculpture  and  design,  in  conjunction  with  the 
principal,  prepares  a  syllabus  of  instruction  for  his  school 
covering  a  period  of  three  years.  As  a  rule  students  studying 
beyond  that  time  are  specialists  and  for  them  post-graduate 
study  is  arranged.  Courses  planned  for  the  craft  classes  are  in 
a  measure  tentative;  each  student  largely  works  out  his  own 
course.  He  makes  his  own  design  in  the  school  and  then  exe- 
cutes the  object  from  thedesign,guidedby  the  craft  instructor. 

Lectures  are  given  in  each  school  by  the  professor  as  the 
class  work  demands.  No  lectures  are  given  apart  from  the 
class  work. 

The  aim  of  the  instruction  in  the  school  of  design  is  to  give 
to  those  who  intend  to  become  designers  or  workers  in  the 


3^6  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

field  of  industrial  art  a  sound  practical  and  artistic  education 
making  toward  adaptability  and  readiness  of  expression.  The 
attitude  of  the  school  is  that  creative  power  is  not  such  a 
rare  gift  as  is  imagined,  but  like  all  gifts  requires  an  environ- 
ment which  will  give  it  an  opportunity  of  development,  and 
which  will  aid  selection,  refinement  and  appreciation  of 
beauty  of  both  form  and  color. 

The  plan  of  work  in  the  school  of  design  is  as  follows: 

Lower  Division — The  outstanding  feature  of  the  course 
(apart  from  original  design)  is  the  importance  given  to  the 
study  of  plant  form,  natural  history,  and  studies  made  in  the 
Victoria  and  Albert  Museum.  All  these  studies  are  careful 
and  exact  representations  of  the  originals,  and  no  conven- 
tional treatment  is  allowed  in  working  from  nature. 

Upper  Division—Students  as  a  rule  are  promoted  to  this 
division  at  the  end  of  the  first  half-year.  In  this  division  in- 
struction is  concentrated  largely  upon  the  work  of  applied 
design. 

Craff  Classes — ^These  classes  provide  an  opportunity  for 
students  to  become  acquainted  with  the  limitations  of  the 
materials  for  which  they  have  made  designs.  The  following 
crafts  are  represented:  wood  engraving;  embroidery  and 
tapestry  weaving;  wood  carving,  furniture  making  and  gesso 
work;  lettering  and  illumination;  gold  and  silversmithing, 
jewelry  and  enameling;  stained  glass;  stone  and  marble  carv- 
ing; weaving;  lithography;  mosaic  work.  No  craft  work  or 
designs  made  in  the  school  are  sold  by  the  school. 

About  seventy-five  per  cent,  of  the  students  entering  remain 
throughout  the  whole  course.  The  larger  percentage  of  the 
graduates  become  teachers  of  art.  It  is  reported  that  about 
fifteen  per  cent,  go  into  the  designing  rooms  of  the  industries 
as  textile  designers,  wall-paper  designers,  commercial  artists, 
metal-work  and  jewelry  designers.  Such  graduates  start  with 
salaries  of  from  £30  to  £70  per  month. 

Certain  strictures  upon  the  work  of  the  College  are  con- 
tained in  a  report  of  a  special  committee  made  to  the  Board 
of  Education  in  1912.  In  this  report  it  was  pointed  out  that 


INDUSTRIAL  ART  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE     327 

two  very  clear  and  distinct  functions  are  imposed  upon  the 
College:  "It  has  to  be  the  training  ground  whence  a  supply 
of  teachers  is  regularly  drawn  for  the  local  schools  of  art,  and 
it  has  at  the  same  time  to  give  specific  training  to  the  pick  of 
the  industrial  students  of  art  from  the  local  schools  who  desire 
to  win  for  themselves  commanding  positions  either  as  handi- 
craftsmen in  the  more  limited  sense  of  the  term,  or  as  de- 
signers for  the  manufacturing  industries." 

The  report  goes  on  to  state  that  up  to  191 2  the  training- 
school  aspect  of  the  College  was  on  the  whole  the  predomi- 
nant one.  Most  of  the  students  who  went  through  the  shorter 
course  expected  to  become  teachers.  A  table  in  the  appendix 
giving  the  occupations  of  students  entered  in  the  school  from 
1900  to  1 910  shows  that  a  very  large  proportion  were  en- 
gaged in  teaching. 

The  work  in  applied  design  is  given  considerable  attention 
in  the  report.  It  is  held  that  "the  most  serious  criticism  is  no 
doubt  that,  in  spite  of  the  experience  in  'arranging  for  real 
work'  which  the  craft  classes  afford,  much  of  the  inventive 
design  remains  unpractical,  and  may  be  described  as  design 
in  the  abstract  rather  than  design  for  some  actual  and  clearly 
understood  technical  process." 

The  committee  state  that  they  are  disposed  to  think  that 
it  was  designers  for  the  handicrafts  who  derived  the  greatest 
benefit  from  the  College  of  Art  course  as  then  organized. 

As  far  as  training  of  designers  for  the  industries  is  con- 
cerned, the  committee  found  that  the  graduates  of  the  College 
of  Art  were  not  held  in  high  regard  by  employers.  In  order  to 
train  designers  for  the  industries  effectively  the  committee 
reached  the  conclusion  that  this  object  could  only  be  accom- 
plished by  the  adoption  of  a  method  of  training  which  will 
maintain  throughout  a  very  close  connection  between  each 
student  and  the  specific  industry  to  which  he  belongs.  They 
further  state  that  "no  one  uniform  system  of  art  training  will 
serve  the  needs  of  all  industries;  each  industry  must  be  studied 
as  a  separate  problem  ...  If  the  training  of  designers  is  to  be 
kept  in  close  relation  to  the  industries,  it  must  in  the  main  be 


328  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

carried  on  in  the  actual  centers  where  those  industries  are 
located,  and  where  alone  the  necessary  equipment  can  with- 
out unreasonable  expense  be  made  available." 

The  recommendations  of  the  committee  make  for  decen- 
tralization of  the  work  of  the  College  of  Art  together  with 
greater  assumption  of  the  function  of  training  designers  for 
the  industries  by  the  provincial  colleges  of  art  situated  in 
centers  of  local  industries. 

The  first  recommendation  in  full  is  as  follows:  "That  the 
training  of  designers  for  the  manufacturing  industries  should 
be  specialized,  and  should  be  undertaken  by  provincial  col- 
leges of  art,  each  of  which,  while  continuing  to  provide  a 
general  education  in  art,  should  devote  special  attention  to 
the  needs  of  the  dominant  industry  in  its  locality,  and  to  this 
end  should  take  steps  to  associate  with  its  work  representative 
manufacturers  and  artisans  belonging  to  the  industry." 

Since  the  issuance  of  this  report  it  is  evident  that  greater 
efforts  have  been  made  to  develop  industrial  designers  in  the 
College  and  that  the  proportion  of  such  designers  entering 
the  industries  has  been  considerably  increased. 

CENTRAL  SCHOOL  OF  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 
London 

This  school  and  the  three  other  London  schools  covered  in 
this  report  are  administered  by  advisory  sub-committees  of 
the  Education  Committee  of  the  London  County  Council. 

The  Central  School  of  Arts  and  Crafts  was  established  by 
the  London  County  Council  in  1896  with  the  object  of  help- 
ing British  handicrafts  and  industries  by  maintaining  their 
ancient  traditions  while  furthering  their  modern  development 
in  design  and  workmanship. 

The  school  was  founded  solely  for  the  training  of  arts  and 
crafts  workers  and  aims  to  supplement  rather  than  to  super- 
sede apprenticeship  by  affording  those  engaged  in  art  indus- 
tries opportunities  for  design  and  practice  in  the  branches  of 
the  craft  which,  owing  to  the  subdivision  of  productive  pro- 
cesses, they  are  unable  to  learn  in  the  workshop.  The  attain- 


INDUSTRIAL  ART  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE    329 

ment  of  the  full  purpose  of  the  school  is  somewhat  retarded 
by  a  mixture  of  students  of  all  types,  from  the  apprentice  who 
is  learning  his  trade  and  has  little  or  no  knowledge  of  art  to 
the  highly  skilled  worker,  professional  artist  and  advanced 
student  of  design.  There  seems  little  doubt  that  the  school  is 
at  present  heavily  weighted  with  students  who  are  compara- 
tive beginners. 

In  May,  191 9,  the  Council  decided  that  it  should  be  a  cen- 
tral school  in  the  highest  sense  and  provided  with  facilities 
for  doing  the  most  advanced  work  in  the  following  depart- 
ments or  schools:  Silversmiths'  Work  and  allied  crafts,  Tex- 
tiles, Stained  Glass  and  Mosaic,  Painted  and  Sculptured  Archi- 
tectural Decoration,  Book  Production,  Furniture,  Dress 
Design,  Engraving.  In  addition  to  these  subjects  of  special 
study  there  is  provided  ancillary  instruction  in  architecture 
and  building  crafts,  drawing  and  painting. 

The  length  of  the  courses  varies  from  two  to  five  years. 

The  curriculum  makes  provision  for  full  and  part-time  day 
students  who  are  studying  with  a  view  to  gaining  a  livelihood 
by  some  form  of  applied  art  work,  for  apprentices  in  art  crafts 
and  industries  by  means  of  early  evening  classes,  and  for 
workers  in  various  trades  and  industries  whose  daily  employ- 
ment admits  of  their  attendance  only  in  the  evening  for  fur- 
ther study  to  make  them  more  proficient  as  designers  or 
executive  craftsmen. 

The  main  work  of  the  school  is  carried  on  in  its  evening 
classes  in  which  1,729  students  were  enrolled  in  the  year 
1919-20. 

The  schools  of  instruction  represented  in  the  evening 
courses  are  as  follows:  School  of  Architecture  and  Building 
Crafts,  which  aims  to  meet  the  needs  of  architects'  pupils  and 
assistants  as  well  as  of  craftsmen  and  students  of  other  sub- 
jects in  which  a  knowledge  of  architecture  is  essential;  School 
of  Painted  and  Sculptured  Architectural  Decoration  and 
Stained  Glass,  the  object  of  which  is  to  encourage  understand- 
ing and  practice  of  all  forms  of  decoration  associated  both 
internally  and  externally  with  building;  School  of  Furniture, 


330  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

the  purpose  of  which  is  to  give  a  right  understanding  of  the 
craft  of  furniture  making  and  designing  and  to  maintain  the 
English  tradition;  School  of  Design,  Textiles  and  Costume, 
which  deals  with  all  forms  of  surface  design  for  furnishing  and 
dress  materials,  and  their  uses  in  decoration  and  costume; 
School  of  Silversmiths'  Work  and  allied  crafts;  School  of  Book 
production,  the  object  of  which  is  twofold — first,  to  preserve 
and  encourage  skill  and  appreciation  of  fine  bookwork  and  the 
closely  allied  arts  of  engraving  and  lithography,  and  second, 
to  strive  for  the  artistic  enhancement  of  the  many  commer- 
cial uses  of  these  crafts  which  arise  continually. 

Lectures  on  a  wide  range  of  art  topics  were  given  during 
the  year  1920-21. 

The  school  occupies  a  splendid  building  centrally  located 
in  London  and  is  extremely  well  equipped  with  classrooms, 
lecture  halls,  library  and  modern  workshops. 

The  local  industries  upon  which  the  school  has  a  bearing 
are  mainly  those  comprised  under  the  term  art  handicrafts, 
which  include  silversmithing  and  goldsmiths'  work,  diamond 
mounting,  gem  setting,  and  the  various  allied  metal  work 
trades. 

Besides  the  evening  work  the  Junior  Technical  School  pro- 
vides full-time  courses  of  instruction  in  the  printing  and 
bookbinding  trades  and  the  silversmithing  and  ancillary 
trades. 

Day  'T'echnical  School  for  Boys  in  Book  Production 
This  school  was  established  by  the  Council  for  the  purpose 
of  educating  boys  by  means  of  printing,  bookbinding  and  the 
allied  crafts. 

Day  'Technical  School  for  Boys  in  Silversmiths* 
and  Jewelers'  Work. 
The  object  of  this  school  is  to  enable  boys  who  intend  to 
enter  some  branch  of  the  silversmiths'  or  kindred  crafts,  as 
silversmiths,  goldsmiths,  jewelers,  chasers,  engravers,  piercers 
carvers,  mounters  or  draftsmen,  to  continue  their  general 
education  and  at  the  same  time  to  acquire  such  a  knowledge 


INDUSTRIAL  ART  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE    331 

of  the  artistic  principles  of  design  and  of  the  scientific  princi- 
ples of  construction,  of  the  properties  of  materials  and  of  the 
use  of  tools  as  will  enable  them  at  the  end  of  the  course  to 
enter  a  workshop  with  an  intelligence  so  trained  as  to  make 
them  immediately  of  value  to  an  employer. 

In  each  of  these  departments  the  boys  remain  in  the  school 
until  they  are  sixteen  years  of  age,  when  they  are  apprenticed 
to  some  firm  of  recognized  standing,  the  time  spent  in  the 
school  being  counted  as  two  years  of  their  period  of  appren- 
ticeship. 

Each  school  is  open  to  receive  a  limited  number  of  boys, 
between  thirteen  and  fourteen  years  of  age,  who  are  in  good 
health  and  can  show  evidence  of  a  satisfactory  general  edu- 
cation and  fitness  for  the  trade. 

There  are  Consultative  Committees  from  the  different 
trades,  connected  with  the  various  courses  offered  by  the 
school.  Types  of  such  committees  ^.YOr— Bookbinding  Section: 
Representatives  of  the  London  Bookbinders'  Association, 
of  the  Workman's  Association,  and  of  the  Council;  Printing 
Section-.  Representatives  of  the  Association  of  Master  Print- 
ers, of  the  Federation  of  Printing  and  Allied  Trades,  and  of 
the  Council. 

The  staff  consists  of  seven  regular  teachers,  sixty-four 
visiting  teachers  and  four  lecturers.  Only  one  of  the  regular 
teachers  is  in  full-time  employment  at  the  Central  School  of 
Arts  and  Crafts;  the  others  are  partly  employed  in  other 
schools  in  the  same  building  or  elsewhere.  The  visiting  staff 
is  composed  entirely  of  professional  artists  or  art  craftsmen 
who  practice  and  are  expert  in  the  various  branches  of  art 
or  handicraft  which  they  are  employed  to  teach,  and  some 
of  them  are  eminent  exponents  of  their  respective  subjects. 
Several  of  these  teachers  have  been  employed  in  the  school 
since  its  establishment  in  1896. 

The  time  of  employment  of  the  visiting  teachers  varies 
from  two  to  sixteen  hours  a  week,  it  being  determined  to  a 
great  extent  by  the  demand  for  the  particular  subject  or  sub- 
jects they  teach.  In  this,  in  common  with  other  schools  under 


332  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

the  Local  Education  Authority,  the  extensive  employment  of 
part-time  teachers  is  primarily  intended  to  secure  the  serv- 
ices of  practical  professional  or  industrial  workers. 

The  salaries  of  the  headmasters  range  from  £457  to  £650 
per  year,  and  the  salaries  of  the  instructors  from  £275  to  £375 
per  year. 

Through  training  and  experience  the  teachers  of  design  are 
well  versed  in  the  technical  requirements  of  their  crafts.  With 
the  exception  of  the  technical  instructors  in  the  evening 
classes,  such  teachers  do  not  as  a  rule  engage  in  commercial 
work.  In  1919-20  there  were  305  day  students,  268  day-and- 
evening  students  and  1,463  evening  students.  Of  the  total  of 
2,036  students  1,293  were  males. 

About  seventy-five  per  cent,  of  the  students  entering  remain 
throughout  the  whole  course.  By  far  the  larger  percentage 
of  the  graduates  enter  the  workshops  of  the  industries.  About 
twenty  per  cent,  go  into  the  designing  room.  Such  graduates 
start  with  salaries  of  from  £30  to  £45  per  month. 

From  information  furnished  by  the  various  teachers,  it  is 
evident  that  the  school  is  doing  most  useful  work  in  training 
students  for  the  various  artistic  industries  included  in  the  cur- 
riculum, and  in  the  provision  of  facilities  for  more  advanced 
study  for  those  already  engaged  in  such  industries.  Many 
of  the  students  in  modeling,  etching,  illustration  and  minia- 
ture painting  are  working  as  professional  artists,  either  inde- 
pendently or  in  connection  with  some  firm. 

There  is  very  considerable  cooperation  with  employers, 
especially  in  those  industries  which  predominate  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  the  school,  such  as  silversmithing  and  the  allied 
trades,  bookbinding  and  printing.  This  cooperation  is  mani- 
fest in  connection  with  the  attendance  of  apprentices  at  the 
special  early-evening  classes  which  meet  twice  a  week  for  each 
section  from  4:45  to  6:45,  arranged  for  them  in  the  employers' 
time,  and  also  in  the  selection  and  placing  of  suitable  students 
as  employees  with  firms  engaged  in  the  above-mentioned  in- 
dustries. 

During  recent  years  several  important  firms  engaged  in  the 


INDUSTRIAL  ART  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE    333 

drapery  and  furnishing  trades  have  cooperated  with  the 
school  in  the  formation  of  special  day  classes  for  their  em- 
ployees. The  scheme  has  been  developed  gradually  by  experi- 
ment and  experience  at  this  school,  and  as  it  is  now  regarded 
as  being  on  a  sound  basis,  the  classes  are  to  be  decentralized 
and  in  the  future  they  will  be  held  in  four  convenient  centers, 
three  on  the  north  and  one  on  the  south  side  of  the  river. 

As  far  as  the  preparation  for  design  goes,  the  Central  School 
of  Arts  and  Crafts  is  the  most  favorably  viewed  of  all  London 
schools  by  the  manufacturers.  Hundreds  of  London  firms  are 
in  close  association  with  the  Council,  offering,  in  some  cases, 
premises  for  school  work  and  other  facilities  and  giving  all 
encouragement  to  their  young  workers.  There  is  also  a  certain 
amount  of  cooperation  with  the  trade  unions.  Experiments 
are  being  made  with  classes  for  manufacturers  and  buyers, 
during  business  hours. 

CAMBERWELL  SCHOOL  OF  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

London 

The  school  was  founded  in  1898  with  the  purpose  of  pro- 
viding instruction  in  those  branches  of  design  which  bear  on 
the  more  artistic  crafts  and  trades,  and  to  supplement  the 
workshop  practices  connected  with  them.  The  school  occupies 
a  substantial  building,  well  equipped  with  class  and  lecture 
rooms,  library  and  work  shops. 

Day  classes  are  conducted  from  10  to  i  and  from  2  to  4; 
late  afternoon  classes  for  apprentices  and  learners  from  4:15 
to  7  '.30  and  evening  classes  from  7  to  9 130. 

The  following  subjects  are  given  both  day  and  evening: 
book  illustration,  figure  composition  and  commercial  design; 
drawing  and  painting  from  life;  figure  and  costume;  still  life 
painting;  fashion  drawing;  lettering  and  illuminating;  draw- 
ing and  design  for  costume  making  and  decorative  design; 
dressmaking;  decorative  design  and  drawing;  embroidery; 
metalwork;  bookbinding;  modeling. 

The  following  subjects  are  given  in  the  evening  only: 
Painted  lettering,  inscription  design  and  ticket  writing;  his- 


334  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

tory  of  decoration;  lithographic  drawing  and  design;  typog- 
raphy for  compositors;  modeling  for  carvers  and  plasterers; 
wood  and  stone  carving  and  letter  cutting;  furniture  design 
and  drawing;  plasterers'  work,  plain  and  decorative;  stained 
glass  work  and  drapery  drawing;  classes  for  salesmen  and 
saleswomen  in  the  wholesale  and  retail  textile  distributing  trade. 

There  are  also  evening  classes  in  anatomy,  preliminary 
figure  and  unclassified  drawing,  architecture,  history  of 
architecture,  building  construction,  house  painting  and 
decorating  and  a  class  for  machine  minders. 

In  the  following  subjects  there  are  evening  classes  as  well 
as  late  afternoon  classes  for  apprentices  and  learners:  Pottery, 
geometrical  drawing  and  perspective,  and  cabinet-making. 

Afternoon  classes  for  composing  and  machine  apprentices 
in  the  printing  trades  are  held  as  follows :  Composing — Monday 
and  Tuesday,  2:30  to  6;  Wednesday  and  Thursday,  4:45  to 
7:15;  Machine — ^Monday  2:30  to  6.  These  classes  areforyoung 
workers  bona  fide  engaged  in  the  trade  only,  and  the  curric- 
ulum embraces  the  theoretical  and  practical  sides  of  the  sub- 
ject, together  with  lessons  in  English  and  in  the  history  of  the 
craft.  Employers  are  asked  to  look  upon  these  classes  as  sup- 
plementary to  the  shop  and  they  are  invited  to  give  their 
apprentices  facilities  for  attending  them.  Attendance  reports 
are  made  monthly  to  employers  of  students,  and  progress  is 
reported  every  three  months. 

An  outline  syllabus  of  the  classes  in  drawing  and  design  for 
costume  making  and  decorative  design  and  the  class  in  furni- 
ture design  and  drawing  are  given  below: 

Drawing  and  Design  for  Costume  Making  and  Decorative 
Design — ^The  work  of  this  class  embraces  the  following  syllabus 
which  is  arranged  to  cover  a  two  years'  course:  (i)  The  study 
of  historic  costume;  (2)  the  cutting  out,  modeling  and  draping 
of  characteristic  styles  of  various  periods,  the  knowledge  so 
acquired  being  directed  to  the  designing  of  modern  costume; 
(3)  the  study  of  dress  decoration  and  the  production  of  de- 
signs for  embroidery,  braiding,  beading,  etc.;  (4)  fashion 
sketching  for  dressmakers  and  others. 


INDUSTRIAL  ART  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE    335 

Furniture  Design  and  Drawing — This  class  provides  in- 
struction in  the  principles  of  design  as  applied  to  furniture 
and  interior  woodwork.  Designs  are  worked  out  to  scale  with 
full-size  details  of  moldings  and  ornaments.  Instruction  is  also 
given  in  setting  out  perspective  drawings  of  furniture  and 
interiors,  and  in  the  application  of  carving,  inlaying,  paint- 
ing and  metal  work  to  the  decoration  of  furniture,  etc.  A  three 
years'  course  has  been  arranged  for  cabinet-makers,  but 
beyond  this  period  further  instruction  is  provided  in  other 
features  of  work  essential  to  this  subject. 

During  the  session  certain  of  the  classes  visit,  under  the 
guidance  of  their  respective  teachers,  the  Victoria  and  Albert 
Museum,  the  British  Museum,  the  National  Gallery,  the 
Zoological  Gardens,  the  Natural  History  Museum  and  other 
places  of  interest.  In  the  summer  months  arrangements  are 
made  for  certain  classes  to  sketchinoneof  the  Council's  parks, 
thus  affording  opportunity  for  outdoor  sketching. 

The  session  comprises  two  terms,  extending  from  the  last 
week  in  September  to  January  31st,  and  from  February  ist 
to  the  last  week  in  June. 

In  1921-22  there  were  322  day  pupils  and  1,055  evening 
pupils  in  the  various  courses. 

SHOREDITCH  TECHNICAL  INSTITUTE 

London 

This  school  is  situated  in  the  heart  of  the  furniture  manu- 
facturing district  of  London  and  deals  with  instruction  in  all 
branches  of  the  furniture  trade.  It  also  conducts  a  trade  school 
for  girls,  and  a  teachers'  training  department. 

The  day  department  embraces  all  three  of  these  divisions 
but  by  far  the  larger  part  of  the  work  of  the  school  is  confined 
to  the  evening  classes  connected  with  cabinet-making  and  the 
allied  trades. 

The  aim  of  the  evening  classes  for  men  is  to  help  establish 
and  maintain  a  high  standard  of  skill  in  cabinet-making,  wood- 
working, and  allied  trades;  to  afford  artisans  the  advantages  of 
broadening  their  knowledge;  to  enable  young  craftsmen  to 


336  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

study  best  methods  of  work  under  the  best  teachers;  and  to 
encourage  and  foster  design  in  the  trades  represented.  The 
trade  classes  are  strictly  confined  to  those  who  are  actually 
engaged  in  the  various  trades  and  who  are  earning  their 
livelihood,  or  preparing  to  earn  their  livelihood  thereby. 

The  school  is  provided  with  well-equipped  workshops  for 
cabinet-making,  carving,  chair  making  and  upholstering. 

The  following  subjects  are  given:  Practical  classes  in  cabi- 
net-making and  inlaying;  workshop  drawing,  and  furniture 
design  for  cabinet-makers;  wood-carving;  chair  making; 
French  polishing  and  furniture  enameling;  upholstery  stuf- 
fing; magnetism  and  electricity;  chemistry  of  metals,  wood, 
paints,  varnishes  and  other  workshop  materials;  general 
drawing  and  design;  modeling;  upholstery  drapery;  drawing 
for  upholsterers,  furniture  draftsmen  and  salesmen;  shop  and 
office  fitting;  electric  wiring  and  fitting;  electrical  instrument 
making  and  elementary  mechanical  engineering;  metal  work, 
van  building  and  wheelwrights'  work;  mechanical  drawing 
and  machine  construction;  English  language  and  literature; 
workshop  and  general  arithmetic. 

The  lectures  and  classes  in  workshop  drawing  and  furniture 
design  for  cabinet-makers  are  specially  suitable  for  working 
cabinet-makers  and  furniture  draftsmen  who  desire  to  learn 
the  methods  of  practical  workshop  drawing  and  setting  out. 

The  aim  of  the  course  in  general  drawing  and  design  is  to 
give  such  instruction  in  the  principles  of  this  work  as  will 
assist  trade  and  other  students  to  take  up  the  more  advanced 
technical  work  of  the  class  devoted  to  design  of  interiors, 
fitments,  etc.  The  work  of  the  class  in  advanced  drawing  and 
design  is  specially  directed  to  meet  the  requirements  of  young 
men  who  are  actually  working  in  drawing  offices  and  furniture 
studios. 

The  decorative  side  of  upholstery  is  dealt  with  in  the  class 
in  upholstery-drapery,  the  object  being  to  give  such  instruc- 
tion as  will  enable  students  to  follow  architects  and  decorators 
in  the  various  styles  of  color  and  treatment  in  such  a  way  as 
to  give  fitness  to  rooms  when  finished. 


INDUSTRIAL  ART  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE    337 

The  aim  of  the  class  in  drawing  for  upholsterers,  furniture 
draftsmen  and  salesmen  is  to  enable  young  upholsterers  and 
furniture  draftsmen  to  appreciate  form,  accurate  arrange- 
ment, balance  and  the  general  appearance  and  special  features 
of  the  various  periods  and  styles  of  drapery  and  upholstery. 

The  hours  of  the  evening  session  are  from  7:30  to  9:45. 

About  eighty  per  cent,  of  the  entering  students  are  reported 
as  remaining  throughout  the  whole  course.  The  greater  per- 
centage of  the  graduates  of  this  school  continue  in  workshops 
of  the  cabinet-making  industry  as  highly  skilled  workmen.  A 
small  number,  approximately  five  per  cent.,  are  reported  as 
entering  into  designing  rooms.  Such  graduates  start  with 
salaries  of  from  £25  to  £40  per  month. 

Day  classes  for  apprentices  and  improvers  were  started  at 
the  request  of  employers  who  agreed  to  send  boys  one  day  a 
week  for  instruction,  which  consists  of  practical  drawing  and 
setting  out,  workshop  calculation  and  bench  work. 

The  object  of  the  Technical  Day  School  for  Boys  is  to  en- 
able boys  who  intend  to  enter  some  branch  of  the  furniture  or 
other  woodworking  trade,  such  as  cabinet-making,  carpentry, 
joining,  shop  fitting,  pattern  making,  turning,  wood-carving 
or  trade  drafting,  to  continue  their  general  education  and  at 
the  same  time  to  acquire  such  knowledge  of  the  artistic  prin- 
ciples of  design  and  of  the  scientific  principles  of  construction 
as  will  enable  them  at  the  end  of  the  two-year  or  three-year 
course  to  enter  the  workshop  with  a  full  appreciation  of  the 
points  to  which  they  are  expected  to  direct  their  attention 
and  with  an  intelligence  so  trained  as  to  make  them  immedi- 
ately of  substantial  value  to  an  employer.  The  school  is 
open  to  boys  who  are  capable  of  doing  the  work  of  standard 
VII. 

This  school  has  developed  substantially  in  the  last  fifteen 
years  and  is  now  well  attended. 

The  object  of  the  Trade  School  for  Girls  is  to  aflFord  an  in- 
dustrial training  in  dressmaking,  upholstery  and  embroidery 
to  take  the  place  of  apprenticeship.  Attached  to  the  trade 
school  are  consultative  committees  of  trade  employers  and 


338  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

social  workers  who,  as  experts,  advise  on  matters  affecting 
the  trade  work.  The  fee  is  £i  los.  a  year. 

Evening  classes  for  women — from  7  to  9:15 — include  in- 
struction in  upholstery,  trade  dressmaking,  home  dressmak- 
ing, embroidery,  and  drawing  and  design. 

SCHOOL  OF  PHOTO-ENGRAVING 
AND  LITHOGRAPHY 

London 

The  school  of  Photo-Engraving  and  Lithography  was  es- 
tablished by  the  London  County  Council  for  the  purpose  of 
training  those  who  are  engaged  in  some  branch  of  the  photo- 
mechanical, photographic,  designing,  lithographic,  engrav- 
ing, printing  and  illustrating  crafts.  No  provision  is  made  for 
amateurs. 

The  art  section  of  the  school  is  intended  for  artists  engaged 
upon  work  for  reproduction  and  students  in  these  classes  have 
the  privilege  of  having  selected  work  reproduced.  Every  op- 
portunity is  given  such  students  to  obtain  a  knowledge  of  the 
various  processes  and  their  technical  requirements. 

The  Junior  Technical  Day  School  provides  a  course  of 
technical  instruction  in  photo-engraving,  preparatory  to 
entrance  to  the  trade.  Instruction  is  provided  in  practical 
work,  and,  in  addition,  scientific  and  artistic  training  is  given 
in  order  that  full  benefit  of  the  trade  instruction  may  be 
obtained. 

The  school  is  well  equipped  with  the  necessary  appliances 
for  study  and  practical  work.  The  appliances  are  identical 
with  those  in  use  in  the  trade,  so  that  students  carry  out  the 
operations  under  thoroughly  practical  conditions. 

The  main  work  of  the  school  is  carried  on  in  the  evening 
classes,  from  7  to  9  rjo. 

The  evening  courses  in  the  school  include  the  following: 
Photography  for  Reproduction  Processes,  the  Preparation  of 
Originals  for  Reproduction,  Line  and  Half-tone  Negative 
Making,  Advanced  Photographic  Work,  Tri-color  Negative 


INDUSTRIAL  ART  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE    339 

Making;  Processes  for  Relief  Printing,  Line  Etching  on  Zinc, 
Brass  and  Copper,  Metal  Printing  and  Half-tone  Etching, 
Fine  Etching,  classes  for  apprentices  and  learners  employed 
in  Photo-engraving;  Processes  for  Surface  Printing,  General 
Lithography,  Map  and  Plan  Drawing,  Lettering  and  Transfer 
Writing,  Chromo-lithography,  Photo-lithography;  Intaglio 
Printing  Processes,  Photogravure;  classes  in  Elementary, 
Antique,  Costume  and  Life  Drawing,  Color,  Pictorial  and 
Decorative  Composition,  Black-and-White  Design. 

Lecture  courses  are  given  in  the  following  subjects:  the 
principles  of  photo-mechanical  methods,  lithographic  pro- 
cesses, paper  making,  paper  testing,  stationery  manufacture 
and  account-book  making. 

Junior  Technical  Day  School 

Boys  between  thirteen  and  fifteen  years  of  age,  who  have 
passed  the  sixth  grade  of  an  elementary  school  or  its  equiv- 
alent, may  be  admitted  to  the  Junior  Technical  Day  School. 

The  school  is  open  on  five  days  a  week  from  9  in  the 
morning  to  i,  and  from  2  to  5  in  the  afternoon. 

The  course  is  arranged  to  extend  over  two  years.  The  com- 
moner methods  of  photo-engraving,  including  line  negative 
making  by  wet  plate  and  line  etching  are  taught  and  some 
practice  is  given  in  half-tone  reproduction.  Instruction  is  given 
in  elementary  chemistry  and  physics  in  relation  to  the  craft, 
and  in  order  to  prepare  boys  for  the  more  artistic  branches  of 
the  work,  there  is  also  instruction  in  drawing.  The  general 
education  of  the  boys  is  maintained  throughout  the  course. 

Although  the  school  is  in  close  touch  with  the  trades,  there 
are  no  committees  from  the  industries  as  in  the  case  of  the 
Central  School  of  Arts  and  Crafts. 

The  fees  are  los.  per  term  or  30s.  per  year.  The  Council 
offers  free  tuition  to  boys  capable  of  profiting  by  the  instruc- 
tion given  but  unable  to  pay  the  fees.  In  such  cases,  boys 
possessing  ability  above  the  average  may  qualify  for  a  main- 
tenance grant  in  addition  to  free  tuition.  The  maintenance 
grant  is  assessed  according  to  the  parents'  circumstances. 


340  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

CENTRAL  SCHOOL  OF  ART 

Birmingham 

The  purpose  of  the  school  is  mainly  to  train  artists  and 
craftsmen  and,  in  the  architectural  classes,  to  prepare  young 
people  for  their  future  work  as  architects  and  to  assist  them 
to  prepare  for  examinations  of  the  Royal  Institute  of  British 
Architects.  The  printing  school  aims  to  prepare  young  people 
entering  the  printing  trade  as  apprentices. 

A  Report  of  Inspection  of  the  school  made  in  April,  1920, 
states : 

"The  total  number  of  students  enrolled  at  the  time  of  the 
inspection  was  975,  of  whom  252  were  taking  full-time  courses 
of  study.  A  large  majority  of  the  remaining  number  are  eve- 
ning students. 

"Of  these  full-time  students  136  are  attending  a  definite 
course  of  study,  covering  thirty  hours  a  week  for  boys  and 
twenty-seven  and  a  half  hours  a  week  for  girls,  for  each  of  the 
four  years  of  the  complete  course.  The  aim  of  the  course  is 
to  prepare  boys  and  girls  for  industrial  art  careers,  and 
though  not  definitely  planned  for  any  specific  industry,  it  has 
a  bias  in  the  direction  of  silversmi thing  or  other  branches  of 
artistic  metal  work.  The  greater  part  of  the  time  is  devoted  to 
draftsmanship  of  various  kinds,  design,  metal  work  and,  in 
the  case  of  boys,  modeling;  but  two  and  a  half  to  four  hours  a 
week  are  given  to  English  and  arithmetic. 

"The  Day  Schoolof  Architecture  has  an  enrollment  of  eight- 
een students,  of  whom  seven  are  ex-service  men.  It  provides 
a  three  years'  course  involving  attendance  at  the  school  for 
three  and  a  half  hours,  on  six  mornings  a  week,  concurrently 
with  work  at  an  architect's  office  in  the  afternoons. 

"Of  the  remaining  ninety-eight  full-time  students  twenty- 
seven  are  ex-service  men  who  are  taking  courses  in  Modeling 
(3)>Jewelry(5),StainedGlassDesign(2),BookIllustration(5), 
Advertisement  Design  (9),Draftsmanshipfor  Art  Metal  Work 
(2),  and  preparation  for  the  Board's  Drawing  Examination  (i). 
Most  of  the  other  full-time  students  are  taking  courses  hav- 


INDUSTRIAL  ART  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE     341 

ing  some  branch  of  Design  for  Illustration  as  the  dominant 
subject,  but  some  are  taking  courses  in  Drawing,  Design  and 
Art  Handicraft,  and  two  students  have  followed  acoursein  the 
Principles  andPracticeof  Teaching  and  School  Management." 

In  the  course  in  Fashion  Drawing  and  Design,  fashion 
plates,  materials  of  various  textures,  and  finished  garments 
are  studied;  imaginative  and  memory  drawing  is  insisted 
upon  and  directly  applied  in  drawing  costumes  from  descrip- 
tions given  by  the  teacher.  The  second  year  is  devoted  to  the 
acquisition  of  knowledge  of  the  structure  and  texture  of 
materials  and  their  suitable  use,  the  manipulative  methods 
of  pen  and  wash  work  for  reproduction,  and  to  drawing  from 
the  human  figure.  The  third  year  stresses  creative  work  in 
design,  and  style  of  expression  in  illustration. 

A  well-devised  course  in  Typography  is  followed,  including 
the  usual  process  of  typesetting  and  display,  also  theoretical 
instruction  in  preparation  for  the  "City  and  Guilds"  exami- 
nation. Special  attention  ispaid  to  thequestion  of  artistic  dis- 
play, and  the  various  efforts  of  the  students  in  working  out 
the  same  problem  are  frequently  mounted  as  a  set.  These  form 
a  useful  basis  of  comparison  by  which  the  students  can  be 
taught  to  appreciate  the  artistic  qualities  of  the  best  work. 

The  course  of  instruction  in  Enameling  and  Jewelry  is  upon 
art-craft  lines.  The  students  design  and  make  articles  in 
which  the  various  processes  of  jewelry  and  enameling  are 
employed.  The  work  in  metal  comprises  raising,  repousse, 
soldering  and  mounting.  The  students  make  their  own  draw- 
ings and  designs  of  shapes  and  decoration.  The  ornamentation 
is  made  up  for  the  most  part  of  borders  made  by  stamping, 
with  the  hand  and  with  patterns  made  from  shaped  tools. 

In  the  course  in  Embroidery  the  beginner  starts  by  em- 
broidering flowers  or  foliage  upon  a  small  piece  of  linen, 
which  is  generally  made  up  afterwards  into  a  bag  or  a  pin- 
cushion; and  follows  by  the  embroidering  of  larger  pieces 
such  as  pillows,  screens,  bedspreads  and  curtains,  upon  which 
flowers,  foliage,  animals,  fishes,  birds,  letters,  etc.,  are  used 
as  the  units  of  design. 


342  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

The  subject  of  Bookbinding  is  taken  entirely  as  an  art 
handicraft  without  special  regard  to  the  training  of  trade 
workers.  The  course  covers  all  the  processes  comprised  in  the 
complete  binding  of  a  book,  including  forwarding  and  finish- 
ing in  gold  or  blind  tooling. 

A  considerable  number  of  students  study  writing  and  let- 
tering, some  with  a  view  to  the  practice  of  writing  and 
illumination  as  a  craft,  and  others  to  acquire  a  sound  knowl- 
edge of  good  lettering  for  use  in  poster  work  and  commercial 
design. 

Students  fourteen  years  old  or  more  are  admitted.  A  good 
general  education  is  the  only  entrance  requirement.  The 
School  of  Architecture,  however,  requires  a  special  exami- 
nation. Fees  per  term:  Five  days  a  week,  £4  los.  if  pupil  is 
over  sixteen  years  of  age,  and  £1  los.  if  pupil  is  under  sixteen 
years  of  age.     Evening  classes,  7s.  6d.  per  term. 

Systematic  records  have  been  kept  of  employment  obtained 
by  full-time  free-admission  students  and  scholarship  holders 
on  leaving  the  school.  Such  records  show  that  most  of  these 
students  have  been  placed  in  occupations  that  afford  oppor- 
tunities for  them  to  apply  their  art  training  and  to  rise  to 
positions  of  responsibility.  A  considerable  number  of  these 
students  have  obtained  employment  as  draftsmen,  modelers 
and  designers  in  different  branches  of  the  art  metal-work 
industry,  others  are  draftsmen  for  shop  fitters,  cabinet-makers 
and  architects,  while  a  few  have  become  stained-glass  workers. 

There  is  definite  cooperation  between  the  school  and  the 
printing  trade.  There  is  a  joint  consultative  sub-committee  for 
the  printing  and  allied  trades  and  employers  allow  their  appren- 
tices time  off  to  attend  the  day  printing  classes  at  the  school 
and  also  pay  their  class  fees.  A  similar  advisory  committee  for 
the  house  painting  and  decorating  trade  is  in  existence. 

The  School  of  Architecture  works  in  close  cooperation 
with  the  Birmingham  Architectural  Association,  members  of 
which  have  arranged  to  allow  their  articled  pupils  to  attend 
the  school  in  the  mornings  concurrently  with  work  in  their 
offices  in  the  afternoons. 


INDUSTRIAL  ART  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE    343 

There  are  a  number  of  branch  and  related  schools  through- 
out the  city.  Of  these,  the  School  for  Jewelers  and  Silver- 
smiths is  particularly  interesting  in  that  it  is  a  school 
designed  to  meet  the  direct  requirements  of  a  definite  trade. 
The  school  is  administered  by  a  joint  committee,  half  of  the 
members  being  nominated  by  the  Jewellers'  Association  and 
half  by  the  School  of  Art  Committee.  The  equipment  is  mod- 
ern and  adequate  and  the  requirements  of  the  trade  are  met 
upon  both  the  art  and  the  technical  sides.  In  addition  to 
catering  to  the  wants  of  the  younger  persons  in  the  trade, 
specific  instruction  is  provided  for  foremen  and  older  workmen. 

SCHOOL  OF  ART 

Leeds 

The  Education  Committee  of  the  City  of  Leeds  has  a 
well-devised  scheme  of  art  instruction  that  coordinates  and 
systematizes  the  art  work  in  the  various  schools  of  the  city. 
The  Committee  issues  a  95-page  "Scheme  of  Work  in  Art 
Instruction"  that  groups  the  work  in  three  grades :  preparatory 
work  in  general  evening  schools,  elementary  and  intermediate 
work  in  branch  schools  of  art,  and  intermediate  and  advanced 
work  in  the  Central  School  of  Art.  The  work  is  confined  to  eve- 
ning classes,  except  in  the  Central  School  of  Art,  which  also 
conducts  day  classes.  The  aim  of  the  entire  coordinate  in- 
struction is  specifically  stated  as  being  the  advancement  of 
the  industrial  arts. 

The  Central  School  of  Art  lays  stress  upon  presenting  the 
various  art  studies  so  that  they  shall  lead  to  some  useful  and 
practical  end.  In  order  to  accomplish  this,  every  facility  is 
provided,  so  that  side  by  side  there  shall  be  not  only  study  in 
principles,  draftsmanship  and  design,  but  that  these  shall  be 
applied  in  a  practical  way  in  the  craft  studios  of  the  school 
to  the  various  art  handicrafts  and  industrial  arts.  An  advisory 
trades  committee  establishes  a  connection  between  the  school 
and  the  various  applied  art  industries. 

The  hours  of  instruction  are  from  9:30  to  12:30  and  2  to  4 


344  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

for  day  classes  and  from  7  to  9  for  evening  classes.  Saturday 
classes  meet  from  10  to  12.  After  a  pupil  has  acquired  sufficient 
knowledge  of  drawing  and  design  he  is  admitted  to  any  of  the 
craft  classes  where  special  design  instruction  is  given  together 
with  practical  shop  work.  The  courses  extend  over  periods  of 
from  one  to  three  years. 

The  school  comprises  the  following  departments :  The  Archi- 
tectural School,  the  Design  School,  the  Modeling  School,  the 
Life  Drawing  and  Painting  School,  the  School  of  Instruction 
in  Primary  Drawing,  and  various  Craft  Schools. 

The  curriculum  embraces  all  the  requisite  subjects  in  the 
six  departments  specified  above,  and  in  conjunction  with 
them  equipment  and  instruction  are  provided  for  the  follow- 
ing crafts:  Bookbinding,  cabinet-making,  embroidery  and 
lace,  enameling  and  jewelry,  mural  decoration,  pottery, 
painters'  and  decorators'  work,  metal  work,  wood,  marble 
and  stone  carving,  illustration  work,  and  wrought-iron  work. 

All  of  the  subjects  of  the  curriculum  are  given  in  both  day 
and  evening  classes.  In  191 9  there  were  200  day  pupils  and 
twice  that  number  in  the  evening. 

The  courses  of  the  Department  of  Architecture  are  planned 
to  prepare  students  for  the  examinations  of  the  Royal  Insti- 
tute of  British  Architects.  In  connection  with  this  department 
there  are  classes  in  furniture  design  and  interior  decoration, 
to  meet  the  requirements  of  those  engaged  in  these  occupations. 

Much  of  the  work  of  the  Department  of  Design  is  in  close 
touch  with  local  industries  and,  in  the  craft  studios  of  the 
school,  the  student  is  enabled  to  supplement  his  workshop 
training  by  carrying  out  his  designs  under  the  direction  of  the 
craft  teachers,  who  are  specialists  in  their  various  branches 
of  the  applied  arts. 

The  courses  of  the  Department  of  Life  Drawing  and  Paint- 
ing are  planned  to  meet  the  requirements  of  those  who,  in 
their  work,  need  a  knowledge  of  the  figure. 

The  courses  of  the  Department  of  Modeling  and  Sculpture 
aim  to  meet  the  needs  of  all  workers  in  plastic  art,  such  as 
carvers  in  wood,  stone,  marble,  ivory  and  metals,  plasterers, 


INDUSTRIAL  ART  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE    345 

architectural  modelers,  potters,  metal-work  modelers,  letter 
cutters,  sculptors,  and  others. 

The  object  of  the  class  in  Pottery  is  to  illustrate  in  a  simple 
and  inexpensive  manner  principles  and  facts  relative  to  the 
making  and  decoration  of  pottery,  enabling  students  to  de- 
sign, make  shapes,  and  decorate  them,  with  a  knowledge  of 
the  requirements  of  this  important  industry. 

The  class  in  art  bookbinding  includes  both  "forwarding" 
and  "finishing."  In  conjunction  with  this  work  instruction  is 
given  in  tooling  and  inlaying  on  leather  book-covers. 

In  the  class  in  Enameling  on  Metals,  the  following  branches 
are  taught:  Cloisonne,  champleve,  basse-taille,  painted  and 
encrusted. 

The  courseof  instruction  in  Embroidery  and  Lace  is  intended 
(i)  to  aid  students  in  selecting  or  designing  patterns  suitable 
for  the  various  methods  of  embroidery;  (2)  to  give  instruc- 
tion in  carrying  out  patterns  or  designs  with  due  regard  to 
economy  of  material,  simplicity  of  effect,  quality  of  surface, 
and  suitability  of  situation;  (3)  to  teach  the  capabilities  and 
limitations  of  the  craft  of  the  needle,  having  in  view  the 
requirements  of  modern  decorative  art. 

The  work  of  the  course  in  Dress  Design  includes  instruction 
in  draping,  the  study  of  fabrics,  color  arrangements  and  the 
designing  of  costumes  in  both  historic  and  modern  styles  and 
of  accessories,  such  as  fans,  bags,  trimmings,  etc. 

Instruction  is  given  in  the  study  of  Illustration  in  its  various 
forms,  with  special  application  to  line  and  half-tone  work  for 
the  profession  and  trade. 

The  course  of  instruction  in  Jewelry  and  Art  Metal  Work 
covers  all  branches  of  the  jeweler's,  silversmith's,  and  gold- 
smith's trades,  and  includes  soldering,  wire  drawing,  both 
solid  and  hollow,  chain  making,  hinge  joint,  catch  and  pin 
making,  saw  piercing,  chasing,  scorping,  setting,  mounting, 
finishing,  and  casting  in  various  metals.  The  course  also  in- 
cludes plating,  gilding,  and  polishing  of  objects  of  silver  and 
of  high-grade  and  low-grade  golds.  There  is  a  fully  equipped 
jewelers'  and  silversmiths'  workshop  at  the  school. 


346  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

A  special  course  of  instruction  in  the  principles  of  art  ap- 
plied to  Typography  is  given  in  conjunction  with  the  classes 
held  in  that  subject  in  the  Printing  Section  of  the  Central 
Technical  School.  This  course  is  divided  into  elementary  and 
advanced  sections,  and  deals  fully  with  methods  of  drafting 
out  type  arrangements  for  all  kinds  of  work,  spacing,  propor- 
tion, association  of  type  faces  and  color  harmony. 

In  conjunction  with  the  Bakery  School  (Central  Technical 
School)  a  class  in  drawing,  design  and  modeling  for  con- 
fectioners is  held. 

There  are  two  evening  courses  connected  with  lithography 
— Drawing  and  Color  for  Lithographers,  and  Principles  of 
Design  and  Ornament  for  Lithographers. 

The  twenty-two  craft  teachers  are  practical  men,  and  in 
thirty  per  cent,  of  the  cases  continue  to  work  in  the  field 
wherein  they  give  instruction.  The  rest  of  the  staff  consists 
mostly  of  graduates  of  the  Royal  College  of  Art.  The  salaries 
of  the  instructors  range  from  £350  to  £600  per  year.  The 
teachers  of  design  have  also  a  knowledge  of  the  technical  re- 
quirements of  their  respective  crafts. 

The  fees  for  each  of  the  day  craft  courses  are  15s.  per  term 
for  one  half-day  per  week,  or  £1  5s.  per  term  for  two  half- 
days.  The  fees  for  similar  courses  in  the  evening  are  los.  per 
annum,  except  in  the  cases  of  jewelry  and  silversmith's  work, 
engraving  and  wrought -iron  work,  where  an  additional 
charge  of  5s.  per  annum  is  made  to  those  not  in  the  trades.  In 
the  various  evening  art  courses  the  charge  is  15s.  per  annum 
for  one,  two  or  three  evenings  per  week,  and  17s.  6d.  for  four 
or  five  evenings.  The  day  fees  range  from  £2  per  annum  for 
one  half-day  per  week  to  £9  per  annum  for  five  days  per  week. 

CITY  OF  LEICESTER  SCHOOL  OF  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

The  scope  of  the  school  is  threefold :  to  afford  craftsmen 
an  opportunity  to  become  better  workmen,  to  provide  gen- 
eral students  with  a  means  for  the  cultivation  of  appreciation 
and  knowledge  of  the  arts  and  crafts,  and  to  qualify  teachers 
for  instruction  in  art.  There  are  four  advisory  sub-committees 


INDUSTRIAL  ART  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE    347 

as  follows:  The  Printing  and  Allied  Trades,  the  House  Paint- 
ing and  Decorating  Trades,  the  Building  Trades,  Cabinet- 
making  and  Furniture  Design.  Each  of  these  committees  is 
made  up  of  representatives  of  related  trade  organizations,  the 
total  number  of  such  organizations  represented  numbering 
twenty- two. 

The  school  possesses  a  good  museum  of  craft  products, 
consisting  of  specimens  of  work  in  wood,  metal,  bookbinding, 
printing,  pottery,  glass,  jewelry,  embroidery,  and  other 
crafts.  These  are  supplemented  by  casts  from  classic,  Gothic, 
and  Renaissance  work  including,  as  a  special  feature,  several 
large  casts  showing  complete  architectural  schemes. 

The  syllabus  of  the  school  is  arranged  in  courses  of  from 
one  to  three  years'  duration,  and  instruction  in  all  of  these 
courses  is  provided  for  in  both  day  and  evening  classes. 

The  Department  of  Architecture  and  Building  provides 
separate  courses  for  architects,  clerks  of  works,  builders  and 
structural  engineers,  bricklayers,  carpenters  and  joiners, 
and  plumbers. 

The  Department  of  Printing  and  Book  Production  pro- 
vides courses  for  lithographic  artists,  apprentices,  and  print- 
ers; bookbinders;  compositors,  and  letterpress  machine 
printers. 

Other  courses  provided  are  for  jewelers,  goldsmiths, 
silversmiths,  and  other  metal  workers;  embroiderers  and  lace 
makers;  modelers,  stone  and  wood  carvers,  plasterers,  letter 
cutters,  and  plumbers'  ornamental  workers;  house  painters 
and  decorators;  cabinet-makers;  and  draftsmen  and  designers. 
There  are  courses  in  dress  design  and  weaving;  spinning, 
weaving  and  dyeing;  figure  design  and  painting;  art  con- 
sidered as  a  part  of  general  education;  and  a  Saturday  morn- 
ing course  for  teachers  of  drawing  in  the  elementary  schools. 
There  is  also  an  evening  course  for  teachers  of  drawing,  writ- 
ing, or  craft  work  in  the  elementary  or  secondary  schools. 

As  an  example  of  the  character  of  the  work  the  Course  for 
Lithographic  Artists  may  be  cited.  This  course  is  arranged  in 
conjunction  with  the  Leicester  Master  Printers'  Association 


348  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

and  the  Lithographic  Artists'  Association,  (i)  for  the  pre- 
liminary training  of  those  youths  who  intend  to  become  ap- 
prentices, and  (2)  for  those  already  apprenticed.  The  mem- 
bers of  the  Leicester  Master  Printers'  Association  have 
arranged  to  give  preference  to  those  who  have  taken  the  two 
years'  preliminary  training,  and  to  give  facilities  during 
apprenticeship  for  the  student  to  complete  the  course  by 
attendance  at  day  and  evening  classes.  The  work  performed 
during  the  course  is  considered  as  a  part  of  apprenticeship 
training. 

In  the  day  class,  the  first  year  embraces  the  following  sub- 
jects: English,  mathematics,  etc.,  sciography  and  draftsman- 
ship, design  for  lithography,  plant  form  and  color  work, 
studies  of  ornament,  demonstration  in  lithographic  printing, 
object  drawing,  portionsof  buildings, etc.,  studiesof  ornament 
and  design. 

During  the  second  year  the  subjects  are:  English,  mathe- 
matics, etc.,  sciography,  and  draftsmanship;  lettering,  design 
and  practical  lithography;  studies  of  plants,  birds,  etc.;  de- 
signing and  cutting  blocks,  and  printing  in  color;  demonstra- 
tion in  lithographic  printing;  memory  drawing;  studies  of 
ornament  and  design. 

At  the  end  of  the  first  year  the  student's  work  is  reviewed 
for  the  purpose  of  deciding  whether  it  would  be  desirable  for 
him  to  continue  his  training  for  a  lithographic  designer  and 
draftsman. 

At  the  end  of  the  second  year  the  student  must  be  appren- 
ticed in  the  office  of  a  lithographer  and  continue  his  work  at 
the  School  of  Art  in  evening  courses  as  follows:  First  year — 
plant  form  and  shading,  lettering,  object  drawing;  second 
year — lettering,  lithographic  design  and  practical  work,  plant 
form  and  shading;  third  year — natural  objects,  ornament, 
heads,  etc.,  lithographic  design  and  pictorial  work;  fourth 
year — life  class,  lithographic  design  and  practical  work;  fifth 
year — life  and  composition,  anatomy. 

There  are  five  instructors  for  architecture  and  building 
crafts;  three  instructors  for  cabinet-making  and  wood-carving, 


INDUSTRIAL  ART  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE    349 

eight  instructors  for  printing  and  book  production;  three  in- 
structors for  silversmiths'  work  and  jewelry;  two  instructors 
for  women's  crafts;  and  nine  instructors  for  drawing,  paint- 
ing, decorating  and  design.  The  teachers'  salaries  range  from 
£350  to  £600  per  year. 

The  teachers  of  design  have  a  fair  knowledge  of  the  tech- 
nical side  of  the  crafts  for  which  they  prepare  their  pupils. 
These  teachers  do  not,  as  a  rule,  perform  any  commercial 
work.  No  craft  work  or  designs  made  in  the  school  are  sold. 

The  minimum  age  at  which  students  are  admitted  to  the 
school  is  fourteen  years.  No  special  entrance  examination  is 
required,  but  students  are  required  to  furnish  evidence  of  an 
education  sufficient  to  enable  them  to  profit  by  the  instruc- 
tion given. 

The  fees  range  from  los.  per  term  for  one-half  day  per  week 
to  £3  per  term  for  more  than  eight  half-days  per  week. 

The  day  classes  meet  from  9  to  12:30  and  from  2  to  4:30. 
There  are  special  afternoon  classes  for  apprentices  and  others 
in  the  cabinet-makers'  trade  that  meet  from  4:15  to  6:45.  The 
school  year  is  divided  into  three  terms  of  thirteen  weeks  each. 

In  1921-22  there  were  585  pupils  in  the  day  classes  and  620 
in  the  evening  classes. 

About  eighty  per  cent,  of  the  students  entering  remain 
throughout  the  whole  course.  By  far  the  larger  percentage  of 
the  graduates  enter  workshops  of  the  industries  as  printers, 
bookbinders,  lithographers,  cabinet-makers,  draftsmen,  metal 
workers,  sign  writers,  painters  and  decorators,  jewelers,  etc. 
About  ten  per  cent,  go  into  the  designing  room  as  designers  of 
textiles,  wall  paper,  as  advertising  artists  and  illustrators.  Such 
graduates  start  with  salaries  of  from  £15  to  £35  per  month. 

The  advisory  sub-committees  maintain  an  active  contact 
with  the  trades  and  also  assist  in  securing  positions  for  grad- 
uates of  the  school,  to  whom  preference  is  accorded  when 
seeking  employment. 

Some  eminent  designers  in  the  trade  have  been  graduated 
from  this  school. 


350  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

MUNICIPAL  SCHOOL  OF  ART 
Manchester 

The  school  presents  courses  of  instruction  in  painting, 
sculpture,  architecture  and  allied  subjects  for  students  who 
intend  to  pursue  these  lines  as  a  profession,  or  as  a  part  of 
their  general  education.  Opportunity  is  also  given  for  stu- 
dents intending  to  specialize  in  application  of  art  to  industry. 

The  division  of  the  school  work  provides  for  a  lower  school, 
giving  elementary  and  intermediate  art  and  crafts  instruc- 
tion; an  upper  school,  providing  specialized  training  in 
various  art  and  crafts  subjects,  and  for  those  wishing  to 
qualify  as  teachers  in  these  subjects;  special  courses  for 
teachers;  an  art-industries  preparatory  course;  post-graduate 
work;  and  public  lectures  and  art  exhibitions.  The  school 
museum  of  art  work  and  an  art  library  provide  additional 
facilities  for  study.  With  few  exceptions  all  subjects  are  offered 
in  both  day  and  evening  classes. 

The  art  subjects  offered  are — Industrial  and  pictorial  de- 
sign; history,  styles  and  methods  of  engraving  and  other  pro- 
cesses of  artistic  reproduction;  drawing  or  modeling  from 
historic  ornament;  history,  styles  and  methods  of  industrial 
design  and  crafts;  modeling  from  casts  and  life;  history, 
styles  and  methods  of  sculpture. 

The  applied  art  courses  are  as  follows:  Design  for  Figured 
Textiles  and  Study  of  Weaving  Processes;  Design  for  Printed 
Textiles  and  theTechnicalitiesofPrintedGoods;  practical  class 
in  Block  Making,  Textile  Printing  and  Batik  Work;  Book  and 
Print  Production  Section — Booklllumination,  Poster  and  Com- 
mercial Advertising  Design;  Writing,  Illumination  and  Letter- 
ing; Etching,  Mezzotint,  etc.;  Lithography,  Drawing  on  Stone 
and  Proofing;  Photography,  Retouching  and  Composition; 
MetalCrqfts  Section — Goldsmiths'  Work,  Jewelry  and  Enamel- 
ing; Silversmiths'  Work,  Repousse,  Hammered  Work,  Chasing 
and  Engraving;  Casting  in  Bronze  and  Electro  typing ;  Chisel- 
ing andFinishingof  Bronze  Castings;  Embroidery  and  Costume 
Section — Embroidery  and  Tapestry  Making;  Dress  and  Cos- 


INDUSTRIAL  ART  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE    351 

tume  Design  (construction  and  history) ;  Practical  Cutting  and 
Making-up of  Costumes;  Fashion-plate  Drawing  and  Design; 
Furniture  and  Architectural  Decoration  Section  and  Allied 
Crafts — Drawing,  Construction  and  Design  of  Furniture; 
Interior  Decoration  and  Perspective  Views;  Practical  Cabinet- 
making;  Wood-carving;  Stone-carving  and  Letter  Cutting; 
Marble  and  Statuary  Carving;  Practical  Stained  and  Paint- 
ed glass  Work;  Plaster  Work,  Plaster  Modeling  with  Cast- 
ing; special  lectures  for  salesmen  in  Drapery,  Furniture, 
etc.;  Practical  Pottery  Making  and  Decorating;  Painting 
and  Decorating  Section — Plain  Painting,  Distempering;  Paper 
Hanging;  Sign  Writing;  Glass  WMting  and  Gilding;  Ticket 
and  Poster  Writing;  Brush  Graining;  Graining  and  Marbling; 
Color  Study  and  Interior  Decoration;  Brushwork,  Painting 
Ornaments,  Emblems,  Stencil  Cutting,  Stenciling  and  Lining. 

The  minimum  age  for  entrance  is  fourteen  years,  with  the 
usual  requirement  of  ability  to  profit  by  the  instruction  given. 

The  school  year  extends  from  the  last  week  in  September 
to  the  third  week  in  July  (to  July  ist  for  the  evening  classes), 
and  is  divided  into  two  about  equal  terms.  The  school  is  open 
from  9  a.  m.  to  9  p.  m.  on  Monday  to  Friday  (except  Wed- 
nesday afternoon,  which  is  reserved  for  outdoor  recreation), 
and  on  Saturday  for  teachers'  classes  from  10  to  12. 

In  the  day  courses  the  fees  range  from  £1  los.  per  term  for 
three  half-days  per  week  to  £4  per  term  for  full  time.  The  fee 
for  three  evenings  per  week  per  term  is  7s.  6d.  and  los.  for 
four  evenings.  The  charge  for  the  full  year  is  somewhat  under 
double  the  term  fee. 

In  1 91 9  the  total  attendance  was  480  day  pupils  and  600 
evening  pupils.  Separate  figures  for  the  different  courses  are 
not  available. 

The  faculty  consists  of  one  headmaster,  one  assistant 
master,  seven  instructors,  one  professor  of  architecture,  one 
assistant  lecturer.  These  teachers  are  not  engaged  in  practical 
work  in  the  industries.  Their  salaries  range  from  £500  to 
£700  per  year. 

About  sixty  per  cent,  of  the  students  entering  remain 


3S'2.  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

throughout  the  whole  course.  By  far  the  larger  percentage  of 
graduates  become  artists,  sculptors,  architects  and  architects' 
assistants  and  individual  craftsmen.  About  ten  per  cent,  go 
into  the  designing  rooms  of  the  industries.  These  latter  start 
with  salaries  of  from  £15  to  £40  per  month. 

As  indicative  of  the  cooperation  between  the  school  and  the 
industries  it  may  be  noted  that  the  Advisory  Board  of  four- 
teen includes  members  of  some  of  the  leading  textile,  pottery, 
and  other  applied  art  corporations,  a  master  designer  for 
printed  fabrics,  and  a  representative  of  the  Calico  Printers' 
Association. 


There  are  many  other  important  schools  giving  instruction 
in  industrial  art  in  various  places  in  England.  Among  these 
are: 

Schools  of  Art  at  Stoke-on-Trent  in  the  center  of  the  pot- 
tery district.  An  advisory  committee  for  these  schools  in- 
cludes manufacturers  and  technical  experts.  The  schools  pro- 
vide graded  courses  for  students  in  every  phase  of  the  pottery 
industry. 

Kidderminster  School  of  Art  which  has  for  one  of  its  main 
objects  the  artistic  training  of  young  persons  preparing  for 
entrance  to  the  design  studios  attached  to  the  local  carpet 
factories  and  the  further  training  of  those  already  so  engaged. 


INDUSTRIAL  ART  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE     353 

THE  BRITISH  INSTITUTE  OF 
INDUSTRIAL  ART 

Several  organizations  aiming  to  raise  the  standards  in  the 
art  industries  have  developed  in  England  since  the  war. 
Prominent  among  these  is  the  British  Institute  of  Industrial 
Art,  organized  in  1920.  The  scope  and  plans  of  this  association 
are  set  forth  in  the  following  excerpts  from  one  of  their  pub- 
lished reports. 

The  Board  of  Trade,  as  the  department  dealing  with 
industry,  in  conjunction  with  the  Board  of  Education  as  the 
department  responsible  for  the  national  system  of  art  edu- 
cation, and  the  authority  controlling  the  Victoria  and  Albert 
Museum,  with  the  advice  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Arts,  the 
Arts  and  Crafts  Exhibition  Society,  the  Art  Workers'  Guild 
and  the  Design  and  Industries  Association,  have  framed  the 
scheme  for  the  establishment  of  the  British  Institute  of  Indus- 
trial Art,  with  the  object  of  raising  and  maintaining  the  stan- 
dard of  excellence  in  works  of  industrial  art  produced  by 
British  designers,  craftsmen  and  manufacturers,  and  of 
stimulating  the  demand  for  such  works  as  attain  to  a  high 
standard  of  excellence. 

The  objects  for  which  the  Institute  is  established  are: 

To  raise  and  maintain  the  standard  of  excellence  in  works 
of  industrial  art,  the  product  of  British  designers,  craftsmen 
and  manufacturers,  to  stimulate  the  demand  for  such  works, 
and  in  particular  to  secure: 

(i)  A  permanent  exhibition  in  London  of  modern  British 
works  which  attain  to  a  high  standard  of  design,  craftsman- 
ship and  manufacture. 

(2)  The  organization  of  provincial  and  traveling  exhibitions 
of  a  similar  character,  either  directly  or  in  cooperation  with 
other  organizations. 

(3)  The  establishment  of  machinery  for  bringing  designers 
and  art  workers  into  closer  touch  with  manufacturers,  dis- 
tributors and  others  whom  it  is  desired  to  interest  on  their 
behalf. 


354  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

(4)  A  purchase  fund  to  secure  for  the  State  selected  works 
of  outstanding  merit. 

That  the  Institute  may  thoroughly  represent  all  phases  of 
modern  industrial  art,  one  section  is  devoted  to  works  me- 
chanically produced  and  others  to  works  of  individual  crafts- 
men. The  test  for  inclusion  in  the  exhibition  is  the  attainment 
to  a  high  standard  of  artistic  design,  apart  from  its  being 
characteristic  of  any  particular  "school"  or  tendency.  In 
addition  to  the  governing  body,  responsible  for  the  general 
management  of  the  Institute,  a  Selection  Committee  has  been 
appointed  consisting  of  persons  of  acknowledged  authority 
and  eminence  in  matters  relating  to  industrial  art. 

The  Institute,  aware  that  art  can  only  enter  industry  as 
an  aid  to  production,  viz.,  by  contributing  to  insure  that 
quality  in  production  which  is  the  natural  outcome  of  good 
design  and  good  workmanship — and  which  constitutes  a  vital 
element  of  successful  competition  on  the  world's  market — 
will  devote  its  utmost  attention  to  the  problems  connected 
with  the  organization  of  that  cooperation  on  a  proper  and 
thorough  basis,  safeguarding  and  promoting  the  legitimate 
interests  of  the  trade  and  industry  as  well  as  those  of  design- 
ers and  craftsmen. 

An  Information  Bureau  is  being  organized  on  a  comprehen- 
sive and  up-to-date  basis,  with  the  general  object  of  acting 
as  a  Labor  Exchange,  Clearing  House,  and  Directory  for  the 
world  of  the  industrial  arts,  providing  practical  data  on 
topics — technical,  economic,  artistic,  educational,  etc. 
For  instance: 

"To  Manufadurers — ^Technical  researches  and  discoveries; 
conditions  of  markets,  tendencies,  statistics,  requirements ;  lists 
of  addresses,  especially  abroad;  where  to  find  designers,  etc. 

To  Buyers  at  Home  and  Abroad — Full  lists  of  addresses, 
catalogues,  descriptions,  samples,  and  general  information 
facilitating  their  investigations  and  business. 

To  Craftsmen^  Designers^  etc. — ^Technical  questions,  manu- 
facturers' requirements,  exhibitions,  competitions,  historical 
and  artistic  documents,  appointments,  etc. 


INDUSTRIAL  ART  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE    ssS 

All  persons  interested  are  invited  freely  to  make  use  of 
this  service.  Producers  and  consumers  are  invited  to  state 
their  requirements,  and  in  their  own  interest  to  supply  the 
Institute  with  catalogues,  illustrations,  etc.,  these  documents 
being  particularly  needed  in  conjunction  with  the  Institute's 
exhibitions  and  for  purposes  of  propaganda,  especially  abroad. 

THE    DESIGN    AND    INDUSTRIES    ASSOCIATION 

The  Design  and  Industries  Association,  founded  in  191 5, 
is  another  organization  of  national  scope  with  similar  objects 
in  view.   Its  aims  are  stated  below: 

The  growth  of  our  national  industries  has  been  left  hitherto 
mainly  to  chance;  such  attempts  as  have  been  made  to  im- 
prove design  in  relation  to  workmanship  have  been  fitful 
and  have  not  greatly  influenced  commercial  production. 

The  need  for  a  national  recognition  of  the  value  of  design 
in  industry  was  never  more  vital  than  it  is  today.  Mechanical 
invention  and  improvement  have  led  to  a  vast  increase  in  the 
production  of  manufactured  goods;  but  the  output  of  the 
machine  has  been  more  considered  than  the  design  of  the 
thing  made  by  it.  Design  has  been  chiefly  regarded  as  a  means 
of  making  goods  more  readily  saleable,  whereas  it  should  be 
the  means  of  making  them  more  genuinely  usable. 

True  design  is  not  merely  a  matter  of  decoration.  Ornament 
may  add  to  the  beauty  of  a  well-planned  and  well-made  thing 
(provided  that  its  usefulness  be  not  thereby  impaired),  but 
ornament  alone  can  never  make  a  bad  thing  good.  Design  is 
the  devising  of  the  form,  construction  and  treatment  of  an 
object  so  as  to  fit  it  perfectly  for  its  use,  whether  it  is  to  be 
made  by  hand  or  by  machinery.  The  striving  for  fitness  in 
the  ship,  the  plough  and  the  aeroplane,  has  produced  perfect 
examples  of  design,  because  those  who  make  them,  in  aiming 
at  efficiency,  achieve  both  economy  and  beauty  in  the  process. 
Industrial  supremacy  in  the  future  will  be  to  the  nation 
whose  products,  as  a  whole,  attain  most  nearly  to  such  stan- 
dards. 


356  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

The  aim  of  the  Association  is  to  promote  the  development 
of  British  industry,  by  encouraging  good  workmanship  based 
on  excellence  of  design  and  soundness  of  material,  which  aim 
can  only  be  attained  through  the  intelligent  and  friendly 
cooperation  of  workers,  designers,  manufacturers,  distributors 
educators  and  the  general  public. 

The  Association  pursues  its  aim : 

By  holding  exhibitions  of  the  best  current  examples  of 
commercial  products. 

By  publishing  literature,  by  propaganda  in  the  press  and 
by  lectures. 

By  forming  trade  groups  of  manufacturers,  designers  and 
distributors,  and  by  providing  means  of  cooperation  between 
individuals. 

By  endeavoring  to  bring  education  throughout  the  country 
into  closer  relationship  with  industry. 


INSTRUCTION  IN  DECORATIVE  ART 
IN  FRANCE 

Since  the  time  of  Henry  IV,  when  cabinet-makers  were 
housed  in  the  galleries  of  the  Louvre,  the  French  government 
has  given  much  attention  to  fostering  the  development  of  the 
industrial  as  well  as  the  fine  arts.  In  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV 
the  establishment  of  the  Manufacture  Royale  des  Gobelins 
brought  together  workers  in  furniture,  ceramics,  metal  and 
tapestry  and  stimulated  designers  and  craftsmen  to  achieve- 
ments which  soon  placed  France  at  the  head  of  European 
nations  in  the  field  of  art. 

Of  late  years  the  government  has  been  keenly  alive  to  the 
fact  that  the  artistic  taste  and  skill  of  the  French  people  rep- 
resent a  national  asset,  and  has  assiduously  endeavored  to 
encourage  the  fullest  development  in  this  field  by  fostering 
schools  of  art  and  museums.  The  importance  of  this  situation 
is  recognized  by  the  fact  that  since  1824  one  of  the  cabinet 
offices  has  been  a  Ministry  of  Public  Instruction  and  Fine 
Arts. 

The  national  schools  of  fine  arts  and  of  decorative  arts,  as 
well  as  certain  schools  connected  with  the  national  manufac- 
tories, are  entirely  supported  by  the  government.  Others 
receive  liberal  government  grants.  The  Minister  of  Public 
Instruction  and  Fine  Arts  exercises  supervision  over  all 
art  schools  in  France. 

The  provincial  departmental  or  municipal  schools  receive  a 
grant  from  the  state  fixed  generally  at  a  third  of  the  contribu- 
tion of  the  local  authorities.  These  grants  are  dispensed  by  the 
local  authorities,  but  the  government  joins  in  supervision  of 
the  classes.  Those  schools  which  are  under  municipal  or  coi  _ 
poration  management  and  which  receive  assistance  in  grants 
from  the  general  government  follow  in  large  measure  the  gen- 
eral method  and  course  of  instruction  laid  down  by  the  minis- 
try. Liberty  is  always  given  to  the  directors  of  these  schools  to 


3s8  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

adjust  the  curricula  to  local  industrial  requirements.  This 
adaptation  to  local  needs  is  indeed  expressly  recommended 
by  the  inspectors. 

In  establishing  new  schools  local  authorities  are  expected 
to  contribute  two-thirds  and  the  government  one-third  of 
the  expense.  Emphasis  is  laid  upon  the  holding  of  evening 
classes  in  these  schools  so  that  artisans  employed  during  the 
day  can  avail  themselves  of  the  opportunities  thus  offered. 

The  government  inspectors  examine  the  workings  of  the 
school  and  report  on  the  work  produced  by  the  pupils.  These 
reports  are  communicated  to  the  departmental  and  municipal 
authorities  who  are  thus  informed  of  the  results  obtained  and 
the  observations  made  on  the  work  of  the  schools.  In  the  cases 
where  progress  is  noted  the  state  encourages  the  students  by 
rewards  or  prizes  and  the  general  councils  of  the  departments 
or  municipalities  award  school  or  traveling  scholarships. 

The  inspectors  of  instruction  in  drawing  also  have  certain 
relations  with  the  provincial  museums  in  that  they  are  re- 
quired to  verify  that  these  museums  are  maintained  accord- 
ing to  the  regulations. 

Each  year  a  session  of  examinations  conducted  by  the  gov- 
ernment is  held  in  Paris  through  which  the  certificate  of  pro- 
ficiency for  instruction  in  drawing  in  the  Lycees  and  colleges 
is  obtained.  This  session  is  open  to  all  candidates  from  Paris 
and  from  the  provinces. 

In  addition,  every  two  years,  a  session  of  examinations  is 
held  at  Paris  to  obtain  the  certificate  of  proficiency  for  instruc- 
tion in  decorative  composition. 

Finally,  a  normal  session  of  the  applied  arts  takes  place 
each  year,  sometimes  in  Paris,  sometimes  in  another  impor- 
tant city.  These  sessions  are  composed  of  the  principal  art 
manufacturers,  artists  engaged  in  the  industrial  arts,  art 
critics  and  directors  and  professors  of  drawing  schools.  The 
expenses  of  these  last  are  generally  defrayed  by  the  municipal- 
ities. 

The  French  policy  of  state  grants  to  departmental  and 
municipal  schools  of  art  obviously  assists  in  building  up  and 


INDUSTRIAL  ART  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE    359 

maintaining  a  widespread  system  of  art  instruction  through- 
out the  country.  The  plan  of  state  inspection  tends  to  main- 
tain the  work  of  these  schools  at  a  high  level  by  bringing  to 
each  school  the  benefit  of  an  informed  point  of  view.  By  this 
means  the  experience  of  the  whole  nation  is  brought  to  bear 
upon  each  school.  In  the  same  way  the  system  of  state  exam- 
inations insures  a  high  standard  of  ability  and  culture  in  the 
instructing  staffs. 

Drawing  is  an  important  subject  of  the  elementary  schools 
and  forms  part  of  the  examination  for  the  certificate  of  pri- 
mary studies. 

In  the  secondary  elementary  schools  (ecole  primaire  supe- 
rieure)  art  instruction  is  given  an  important  place.  Three 
weekly  drawing  lessons  are  intended  to  furnish  a  general  basis 
of  skill  upon  which  art  instruction  can  be  developed.  Instruc- 
tion is  given  by  drawing  from  geometric  forms,  plaster  casts 
and  natural  objects.  Within  the  last  five  years  a  greater 
amount  of  freedom  in  individual  expression  has  been  encour- 
aged, with  excellent  results.  There  is  less  drawing  from  plas- 
ter casts  and  more  sketching  from  natural  forms,  as  animals, 
flowers,  etc.  This  change  has  been  particularly  forwarded  by 
the  new  regulations  of  these  schools  issued  in  the  fall  of  1920. 

Drawing  also  receives  much  attention  in  the  numerous 
drawing  schools  (ecoles  de  dessin)  located  throughout  the 
country,  which  carry  their  instruction  to  the  point  of  compo- 
sition in  the  decorative  arts.  For  the  most  part  these  schools 
are  subventioned  by  the  state,  which  exercises  a  control  in 
regard  to  instruction.  This  aid,  however,  is  not  given  in  a 
uniform  manner,  but  varies  according  to  the  needs  of  the 
particular  region  and  the  demands  of  the  local  industries. 
About  twenty  per  cent,  of  these  institutions  have  evening 
classes  as  well.  Drawing  as  well  as  the  elements  of  design  is 
also  given  an  important  place  in  the  ecoles  pratiques  de  com- 
merce et  d'industrie. 

Schools  that  have  to  do  directly  with  the  training  of  de- 
signers are  represented  first  by  the  system  of  national  schools 
of  decorative  art  (ecoles  nation  ales  des  arts  decoratifs)  lo- 


36o  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

cated  in  Paris,  Aubusson,  Bourges  and  Limoges,  and  indus- 
trial art  schools  located  at  Roubaix,  Saint-Etienne  and  Rheims. 
These  schools  to  a  considerable  extent  shape  their  instruction 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  local  industry.  Certain  schools 
connected  with  national  manufactures  are  also  maintained. 
These  are  found  in  connection  with  the  tapestry  works  at 
Gobelins  and  Beauvais  and  in  connection  with  the  ceramic 
establishment  at  Sevres. 

Instruction  in  applied  art  is  also  often  afforded  in  the 
Ecoles  Nationales  des  Beaux-Arts  and  in  the  Ecoles 
Regionales  des  Beaux -Arts  maintained  in  various  cities  of 
France. 

In  addition  there  are  a  number  of  special  schools  of  indus- 
trial art  maintained  by  municipalities,  most  notably  by  the 
city  of  Paris.  Such  schools  in  the  capital  are  represented  by 
the  Ecole  Boulle  (furniture),  Ecole  Estienne  (printing  and 
bookmaking),  Ecole  Bernard-Palissy  (ceramics,  decorative 
painting,  textile  design  and  carving)  and  Ecole  Germain- 
Pilon  (modeling  and  applied  design).  The  instruction  in  the 
first  two  schools  is  mainly  technical  in  character,  and  instruc- 
tion in  design  is  incidental.  The  larger  number  of  graduates 
of  such  schools  enter  the  industry  as  highly  skilled  workers 
in  the  shops.  Some  of  these  become  foremen  and  managers  in 
various  branches  of  the  industry.  A  few  endowed  with  artistic 
ability  may  subsequently  become  designers.  Another  small 
fraction  of  the  graduates  find  employment  directly  in  design 
studios  of  industry  while  still  a  few  others  seek  their  livelihood 
as  free-lance  designers. 

Schools  serving  one  particular  industry  are  found  in  the 
centers  of  the  manufacturing  districts,  e.  g.,  the  textile  school 
at  Lyons.  With  the  exception  of  a  small  number  of  private  and 
syndicate  schools,  all  French  institutions  are  supported  by  the 
state,  the  municipality,  or  both.  Instruction  in  the  state- 
supported  schools  is  free  of  charge.  There  is  a  small  number  of 
private  schools  which  are  patronized  mostly  by  amateurs. 
The  syndicate  schools  are  mostly  trade  schools  supported  by 
manufacturers'  associations  in  the  different  trades,  in  which 


INDUSTRIAL  ART  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE    361 

small  fees  are  charged.  In  several  cases  design  is  taught  in 
these  schools. 

Information  would  seem  to  indicate  that  industrial  art 
schools  furnish  perhaps  fifty  per  cent,  of  the  designers  in  the 
industry  and  that  about  thirty  per  cent,  are  graduates  of  fine 
art  schools  who  have  taken  up  industrial  designing  for  addi- 
tional income.  The  remainder  consists  of  self-taught  men  who 
come  from  various  branches  of  industry. 

The  teachers  are  generally  appointed  through  competitive 
examinations  and  remain  in  their  positions  until  pensioned. 
This  system  is,  of  course,  not  one  that  tends  to  bring  forward 
the  younger  element.  From  thirteen  to  sixteen  years  is  the 
general  age  at  which  French  pupils  enter  industrial  art  schools, 
where  they  remain  from  three  to  five  years.  Because  of  the 
low  minimum  age  many  pupils  have  had  only  an  elementary 
school  education.  Admission  is  granted  after  the  applicant 
has  successfully  passed  the  competitive  entrance  examinations, 
which  consist  of  fundamental  subjects  of  general  education 
and  the  rudiments  of  drawing  and  modeling. 

The  French  system  of  admitting  young  people  to  the  indus- 
trial art  schools  at  the  early  age  of  thirteen  would  seem  to  fit 
the  conditions  of  French  life.  In  America  it  is  doubtful  that 
this  early  admission  period  would  be  acceptable.  As  a  people 
we  incline  to  require  a  higher  general  education  before  enter- 
ing upon  special  technical  education  and  in  the  field  of  art 
education  this  consideration  would  seem  particularly  import- 
ant, as  our  national  life  is  less  suited  to  furnish  students  of  art 
with  that  inspiration  and  culture  which  is  so  important  to  the 
development  of  the  French  designer.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
thoroughness  with  which  the  technical  side  of  every  craft  is 
taught  in  most  French  schools  furnishes  an  example  that  may 
well  be  taken  to  heart  in  American  vocational  education. 

The  control  of  all  art  schools  by  an  elaborate  state  adminis- 
tration tends  to  leave  little  freedom  to  the  individual  schools 
to  meet  the  rapidly  changing  demands  of  the  day.  There  is  a 
marked  tendency,  however,  on  the  part  of  the  state  adminis- 
tration to  encourage  adaptation  of  the  instruction  to  local 


362  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

needs.  Most  schools  have  easy  access  to  excellent  museum 
collections  which  are  used  by  the  students  to  collect  data  on 
the  various  periods.  The  schools  of  smaller  communities  de- 
pend to  a  large  extent  on  their  libraries  for  this  information. 

Many  of  the  French  industrial  art  schools  aim  primarily  to 
develop  highly  skilled  workmen,  trusting  to  the  stimulus  of 
French  life  and  culture  to  furnish  a  few  pupils  with  inspiration 
and  incentive  to  further  and  higher  artistic  development. 

It  is  further  evident  that  schools  of  decorative  design  con- 
stitute only  one  channel  through  which  industrial  designers 
are  developed  in  France.  A  number  of  such  designers  have 
received  their  training  in  the  schools  of  fine  arts  and  have 
turned  for  their  vocations  to  the  field  of  applied  design.  Again, 
many  after  perhaps  elementary  instruction  in  drawing  and 
design  in  the  public  schools  have  received  almost  their  entire 
special  training  in  commercial-design  studios. 

The  general  attitude  of  the  manufacturer  in  France  towards 
schools  of  applied  art  is  hardly  one  of  enthusiasm.  It  is  often 
one  of  indifference.  Commonly  this  indifference  rests  upon 
the  feeling  that  the  training  that  counts  most  from  the  manu- 
facturer's standpoint  is  that  to  be  gained  in  his  own  design 
room.  There  are,  however,  far-seeing  manufacturers  who 
recognize  the  value  of  industrial  art  instruction  as  given  in  the 
schools,  avail  themselves  of  its  benefits,  and  are  willing  to 
lend  their  fullest  cooperation  and  support. 

Taking  the  situation  as  a  whole,  it  cannot  be  too  strongly 
emphasized  that  schools  constitute  but  one  element  in  the 
education  of  the  French  designer.  The  general  atmosphere  of 
public  and  private  life  must  be  reckoned  as  an  equally  im- 
portant element.  In  France  art  has  left  its  legacies  not  only 
in  buildings,  public  squares,  sculpture,  gardens  and  great 
collections,  but  in  the  finer  treatment  of  the  common  things 
of  life.  All  of  these  constitute  a  large  influence  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  French  designer. 


INDUSTRIAL  ART  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE    363 

fiCOLE  NATIONALE  DES  ARTS  DfiCGRATIFS 

Paris 

The  Ecole  Nationale  des  Arts  Decoratifs  was  founded  in 
1767  for  the  purpose  of  giving  gratuitous  instruction  to  work- 
men employed  in  industrial  art  work.  Until  1874  ^^  was  con- 
ducted as  an  evening  school,  when  an  atelier  for  decorative 
art  was  opened  as  a  day  class.  The  purpose  of  the  school  is  to 
train  decorative  artists,  painters,  modelers  and  designers  for 
the  art  industries.  A  department  of  architecture  is  also  main- 
tained. 

The  school  is  under  the  direction  of  a  special  council  pre- 
sided over  by  the  Chief  of  Administration  of  Fine  Arts  and 
has  a  consulting  committee  composed  of  artists  and  men 
prominent  in  the  industries.  The  housing  and  equipment 
of  the  present  buildings  are  inadequate  and  the  students  are 
crowded  for  space. 

Two  sections  are  maintained,  one  for  boys  and  men  and  one 
for  girls.  Competitive  examinations  for  admission  are  held 
twice  a  year.  Candidates  must  be  at  least  thirteen  years  of 
age  and  not  over  thirty,  in  the  case  of  women  not  over  twenty- 
five. 

The  examination  in  the  case  of  boys  consists  of  a  test  in 
drawing  or  modeling  from  the  cast.  This  may  consist  of  a 
decorative  composition  in  drawing  or  modeling  or  an  archi- 
tectural composition  according  to  the  course  for  which  the 
applicant  applies.  The  duration  of  the  examination  is  ten 
hours. 

The  courses  preparing  for  the  art  industries  are  as  follows: 

Design — Drawing  from  the  antique,  ornament  and  life; 
composition  of  ornament;  study  of  plant  forms  and  all  natural 
and  evolved  motives  capable  of  use  in  decoration ;  exercises 
in  composition  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  different  art 
industries,  having  in  mind  their  technical  requirements;  wood, 
furniture,  metals,  textiles,  printing,  binding,  glass,  ceramics, 
etc;  historic  ornament;  composition  for  decorative  painting, 
cartoons  for  tapestries,  stained  glass,  etc. 

Modeling — ^Modeling  from  ornament  and  life;  practical 


364  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

work  in  the  studio  with  reference  to  various  methods  of  indus- 
trial reproduction  in  wood,  bronze,  stone  and  ceramics; 
architectural  decoration. 

In  addition  there  are  special  courses  in  descriptive  geom- 
etry, perspective,  mathematics,  comparative  anatomy  and 
the  history  of  art.  Lectures  are  given  by  artists  and  technicians 
to  explain  the  nature  of  industrial  processes  and  the  require- 
ments imposed  by  these  upon  the  work  of  the  designer. 

There  are  evening  classes  in  all  subjects  given  in  the  day 
designed  for  apprentices  and  workers  in  the  art  industries. 

The  school  is  open  from  8:30  a.m.  to  5  p.m.,  and  from 
8:00  to  10:00  p.m. 

The  length  of  the  course  is  not  defined  as  to  number  of 
years.  Students  remain  from  one  to  four  years,  the  majority 
being  in  attendance  three  years.  All  instruction  is  free  of 
charge  and,  with  the  exception  of  the  lectures  on  the  various 
technical  processes,  is  given  individually.  The  teachers, 
twenty-three  in  number,  who  have  in  most  cases  had  practical 
experience  in  the  field  in  which  they  instruct  and  are  graduates 
of  French  art  schools,  are  employed  at  salaries  ranging  from 
4,000  to  7,500  francs  per  year.  These  teachers  do  not,  as  a 
rule,  perform  any  commercial  work. 

In  the  year  1914  the  total  attendance  was  750  boys  and 
150  girls,  about  evenly  distributed  over  the  various  courses. 
At  present  the  enrollment  is  about  half  these  numbers. 

The  emphasis  of  the  school,  as  stated  above,  is  very  much 
in  the  direction  of  training  designers  able  to  design  for  any 
branch  of  the  art  industries  after  acquiring  special  technical 
knowledge  through  a  short  apprenticeship  in  the  industry. 
No  designs  or  craft  work  made  in  the  school  are  sold. 

By  far  the  larger  percentage  of  graduates  of  the  design  and 
modeling  courses  enter  studios  of  the  various  industries.  They 
are  required  in  most  cases  to  serve  a  short  apprenticeship. 
Such  graduates  start  with  salaries  of  from  300  to  800  francs 
per  month.  A  small  number  of  the  graduates  become  decora- 
tive painters  and  sculptors. 


INDUSTRIAL  ART  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE    365 

ECOLE  BOULLE 
Paris 

The  ficole  Boulle  was  founded  in  1886  to  train  workmen  to 
design  and  make  artistic  furniture  and  metal  work.  This 
school  and  the  three  following  are  supported  by  the  city  of 
Paris  and  administered  by  the  Prefecture  de  la  Seine. 

The  school,  situated  in  the  furniture  district,  near  the  Fau- 
bourg Sainte-Antoine,  is  extremely  well  equipped,  containing 
lecture  rooms,  drafting  rooms  and  studios,  modeling  rooms, 
a  laboratory,  library,  exhibition  rooms  and  a  large  number  of 
well-equipped  and  well-lighted  workrooms. 

The  purpose  of  the  school  is  to  impart  a  thorough  knowl- 
edge of  the  technique  and  traditions  of  French  furniture  mak- 
ing and  related  metal  work,  as  well  as  skill  in  the  processes 
involved. 

Students  are  admitted  at  the  age  of  thirteen  to  sixteen  years 
and  are  submitted  to  an  examination  which  is  competitive  in 
character.  The  instruction  is  free  for  students  living  within  the 
limits  of  the  city  of  Paris.  Owing  to  after-war  conditions,  the 
number  of  applicants  for  admission  is  not  so  great  as  in  for- 
mer years,  when  only  about  fifty  per  cent,  of  the  applicants 
could  be  admitted. 

In  1 91 9  there  were  160  pupils  in  the  furniture  classes  and 
1 20  in  the  metal-work  classes. 

The  length  of  the  courses  is  from  three  to  five  years. 

Theoretical  instruction  is  given  in  the  morning,  from  8  to 
12  o'clock  and  technical  instruction  and  practical  work  in 
the  afternoon  from  i  to  6  o'clock.  The  former  consists  of 
French  language,  history,  geography,  arithmetic,  geometry, 
technology,  history  of  art,  industrial  drawing,  sketching, 
modeling,  constructive  design  and  decorative  composition. 

Technical  instruction  in  the  furniture  classes  includes 
cabinet-making,  wood-carving,  turning,  joiners'  work  and 
upholstery,  while  the  metal  work  comprises  chasing,  gold  and 
silversmith  work,  jewelry  making,  engraving  of  steel,  cutting 
of  hubs  and  dies,  casting  of  bronze  for  furniture,  ornaments, 
repousse  work  and  metal  turning. 


366  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

The  theoretical  course  of  the  morning  aims  to  prepare  and 
assist  the  pupil  in  his  practical  work  during  the  afternoon  in 
the  workshop.  He  prepares  his  working  drawings  and  designs 
in  the  morning  that  are  carried  out  in  the  afternoon,  with  the 
help  of  the  technical  instructor.  Every  effort  is  made  to  secure 
harmony  between  the  artistic  and  technical  instruction.  The 
drawing,  painting  and  modeling  course  is  similar  to  that  in  all 
French  schools,  i.  e.,  free-hand  drawing  and  modeling  from 
the  plaster  cast,  natural  objects  and  the  figure.  No  craft  work 
or  designs  made  in  the  school  are  sold. 

The  general  program  of  studies  is  as  follows: 

1 .  Analytical  study  of  ancient  masterpieces,  for  the  purpose 
of  enforcing  the  rules  of  composition  and  harmony  and  keeping 
alive  a  keen  appreciation  of  fine  technique  and  workmanship. 

2.  Study  of  materials,  processes  of  manufacture  and  tenden- 
cies of  modern  decorative  art.  These  studies  are  practically 
applied  in  the  courses  on  technology,  construction  and  dec- 
orative composition. 

The  pupil,  after  being  graded  as  the  result  of  his  entrance 
examination,  starts  the  work  of  the  first  year  in  the  special 
branch  he  prefers.  During  his  apprenticeship,  he  learns  the 
trade  he  has  chosen  and  is  given,  in  the  theoretical  courses 
and  in  the  workshop,  the  artistic,  technical  and  professional 
instruction  that  will  make  him  a  finished  craftsman. 

As  already  stated,  the  term  of  instruction  is  three  or  five 
years,  according  to  the  aptitude  of  the  pupil. 

Pupils  who  follow  the  three-year  course  belong  to  the  ap- 
prenticeship division;  and  those  who,  during  the  three-year 
course,  show  special  aptitude,  may  pursue  their  studies  for 
another  period  of  two  years  by  entering  the  division  of  higher 
studies. 

Higher  Studies — Pupils  who  follow  this  advanced  course 
continue  their  professional  apprenticeship  by  participating 
in  the  execution  of  furniture  and  objects  of  art,  reproductions 
of  pieces  belonging  to  the  Musee  des  Arts  Decoratifs  or  to  the 
collections  of  the  Mobilier  National.  Otherwise,  these  pupils 
execute  individual  pieces  of  modern  decorative  art  work  which 


INDUSTRIAL  ART  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE    367 

they  have  designed  in  the  courses  of  decorative  composition, 
modeling  or  construction. 

The  theoretical  courses  given  theseadvancedpupils  comprise : 

Detailed  analysis  of  works  in  the  French  styles;  free-hand 
drawings  from  classical  models;  furniture  or  art  objects; 
flower  or  animal  forms  or  the  human  figure;  constructive  de- 
signs; full-size  working  drawings  of  furniture  or  bronzes  or  jew- 
elry, interior  architecture;  decorative  compositions  relating 
to  the  execution  of  complete  decorative  furnishing  schemes. 

To  supplement  the  instruction  the  advanced  pupils  are 
conducted  by  their  professors  through  manufacturing  plants, 
museums  and  palaces.  Special  lectures  are  also  given  these 
advanced  pupils  by  the  most  distinguished  men  in  the  art 
industries  and  decorative  arts  of  Paris. 

The  exhibition  rooms  on  the  top  story  consist  of  a  dining 
room  and  salon.  A  continuously  changing  exhibition  of  merito- 
rious work  is  held  in  these  rooms,  which  affords  the  students  an 
opportunity  to  compare  their  work  with  that  of  their  fellow 
students  and  also  to  gather  inspiration  and  encouragement. 
The  quality  of  the  work  shown  in  these  exhibitions  is  excellent. 

The  furniture  and  metal  work  shown  is  technically  of  high 
quality  and  in  good  taste.  Many  of  the  drawings  and  designs, 
while  not  executed  primarily  to  develop  designers,  are  superior 
to  the  work  of  schools  that  devote  their  entire  attention  to 
the  development  of  such  artists.  There  are  sixteen  teachers 
who,  as  a  rule,  do  not  perform  any  commercial  work.  Their 
salaries  range  from  5,000  to  8,000  francs  per  year. 

By  far  the  larger  percentage  of  graduates  enter  workshops 
of  their  respective  trades;  some  become  teachers,  some  tech- 
nical experts  or  foremen  and  others  managers  of  establish- 
ments or  directors  of  their  own  shops  or  factories.  About  one- 
fifth  are  said  to  go  into  designing  rooms.  These  graduates  start 
with  salaries  of  from  400  to  700  francs  per  month. 

Note:  Through  the  courtesy  of  the  editors  oi  Good  Furniture  cer- 
tain references  to  the  program  of  studies  contained  in  an  article  on 
the  Ecole  Boulle  in  the  issue  of  September,  1 921,  have  been  made 
use  of  in  this  description. 


368  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

fiCOLE  BERNARD-PALISSY 
Paris 

The  Ecole  Bernard-Palissy  was  founded  for  the  training  of 
craftsmen  and  the  development  of  designers  and  modelers 
for  various  branches  of  industry.  It  is  well  equipped  with 
workshops  for  wood,  stone  and  ivory  carving,  and  for  the 
painting  and  firing  of  ceramics. 

Pupils  enter  after  having  passed  competitive  examinations 
in  free-hand  drawing  and  geometrical  drawing.  The  school 
admits  only  fifty-five  pupils  each  year.  They  must  be  of 
French  nationality  and  from  fourteen  to  sixteen  years  of  age. 
No  fees  are  charged.  In  191 9  there  were  150  students,  about 
evenly  distributed  in  the  various  courses. 

Instruction  is  given  in  the  carving  of  wood,  stone  and  ivory, 
and  in  the  decorating  and  making  of  ceramics.  The  art  in- 
struction of  the  first  year  consists  of  drawing  and  modeling 
from  casts,  geometric  design,  and  water-color  painting;  and 
of  the  remaining  three  years  of  the  course,  of  drawing,  model- 
ing, perspective,  anatomy,  composition,  and  history  of  art. 

There  are  eight  instructors  who  are  selected  from  among 
former  graduates  of  the  school  and  from  among  workers  in 
the  respective  industries. 

The  teachers  of  design  receive  salaries  of  from  7,oco  to 
1 1 ,000  francs  per  year.  They  are  familiar  with  the  technical 
requirements  of  the  various  crafts  but  do  not,  as  a  rule,  per- 
form any  commercial  work. 

A  majority  of  those  entering  remain  throughout  the  course 
of  four  years.  About  forty  percent.of  the  graduates  are  reported 
to  become  designers  of  textiles,  wall  papers,  posters,  com- 
mercial work,  etc.;  the  remainder  enter  the  workshops. 

fiCOLE  ESTIENNE 
Paris 

The  Ecole  Estienne  was  founded  in  1889  for  the  training  of 

workers  for  the  various  bookbinding  and  book  printing  trades. 

It  is  well  equipped  with  lecture  halls,  printing  rooms,  chem- 


INDUSTRIAL  ART  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE    369 

ical  laboratories,  the  necessary  machinery  required  in  the 
bookbinding  and  printing  industries,  an  up-to-date  photog- 
rapher's studio,  and  a  small  collection  of  ancient  and  modern 
bookbindings. 

There  are  approximately  ninety  to  one  hundred  pupils 
admitted  each  year  between  the  ages  of  thirteen  and  sixteen 
years,  as  a  result  of  competitive  examinations,  consisting  of 
French  dictation,  arithmetic  and  drawing.  Special  students 
are  allowed  to  enroll  by  paying  a  fee  of  400  francs  for  the  first 
and  second  year,  and  600  francs  for  the  third  and  fourth 
years.  The  regular  students  pay  no  fees. 

The  regular  course  of  instruction  covers  four  years.  The 
morning  sessions  from  8  to  12,  are  devoted  to  general  and 
theoretical  instruction  and  the  afternoons,  from  i  to  5,  to 
practical  work  in  the  shops. 

The  morning  program  is  as  follows : 

First  year — Drawing,  history  of  styles,  designing,  drawing 
from  the  plaster  cast  and  natural  objects. 

Second  year — Composition  of  decoration,  modeling,  geom- 
etry and  drawing. 

T'hird  year — Decorative  composition,  drawing  and  model- 
ing, anatomy. 

Fourth  year — Drawing  and  modeling,  decorative  composi- 
tion, anatomy. 

The  practical  courses  consist  of  typographic  composition, 
bookbinding,  printing  and  lithography,  wood  engraving, 
etching,  lettering  and  gilding  of  leather. 

Whenever  possible,  the  students  work  for  the  trade  under 
the  supervision  of  the  instructors.  Both  the  school  and  the 
students  receive  remuneration  for  this  work.  The  City  of 
Paris  gives  the  school  many  printing  orders  which  are  filled 
by  the  students. 

Evening  classes  are  arranged  for  apprentices  and  workmen 
in  the  industry,  over  thirteen  years  of  age,  who  desire  to  add 
to  their  technical  knowledge  or  to  perfect  their  craft.  These 
evening  courses  are  of  a  practical  nature  and  the  students, 
under  the  supervision  of  instructors,  execute  more  complicated 


370  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

problems  than  they  meet  with  in  the  industry.  The  evening 
classes  are  considered  very  important  by  employers,  as  they 
enable  workers  in  the  trade  to  extend  their  knowledge  beyond 
what  would  be  ordinarily  acquired. 

In  1 91 9  the  total  attendance  was  260  pupils,  divided  into 
fifteen  work  classes;  the  first  year  comprising  120  pupils, 
second  year  70  pupils,  third  year  40  pupils  and  fourth  year 
30  pupils. 

The  teachers  are  selected  from  among  graduates  of  French 
art  schools;  and  from  prominent  masters  in  the  trade.  The 
majority  are  full-time  teachers.  The  staff  consists  of  the  direc- 
tor, nine  professors  and  sixteen  technical  instructors,  who 
receive  salaries  ranging  from  5,000  francs  to  11,000  francs 
per  year,  according  to  their  classification  and  length  of 
service. 

About  one-quarter  of  the  number  of  the  students  who  enter 
the  course  remain  throughout  the  four  years.  A  large  majority 
of  the  graduates  are  placed  in  the  industry  by  the  school  and 
achieve  responsible  and  well-paid  positions,  as  they  are 
eagerly  sought  for  by  the  industry.  At  the  start  they  receive 
salaries  of  from  300  to  800  francs  per  month.  Occasionally  a 
graduate  enters  the  designing  room,  but  very  rarely,  as  this 
school  does  not  profess  to  develop  designers. 

The  artistic  and  technical  standards  of  this  institution  are 
very  high  and  its  value  to  the  industry  is  considerable,  largely 
on  account  of  the  fact  that  the  production  of  medium-priced 
machine-bound  books  is  considered,  as  well  as  the  production 
of  expensive  hand  bindings.  The  relation  between  the  prac- 
tical and  the  artistic  is  well  balanced  and  high  skill  and  good 
taste  are  evident  in  the  work  of  the  pupils. 

fiCOLE  GERMAIN-PILON 
Paris 

The  £cole  Germain-Pilon  was  founded  for  the  training  of 
craftsmen  and  designers  for  the  various  branches  of  applied- 
art  industries.  It  is  fairly  well  equipped  with  workshops  for 
wood-carving,  jewelry  making,   cabinet-making,   and   the 


INDUSTRIAL  ART  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE    371 

manufacture  of  ceramics.  There  are  also  studios  for  modeling, 
casting,  decorative  painting  and  stage  decoration. 

The  school  does  not  aim  to  train  designers  for  any  special 
branch  of  the  industry,  but  rather  to  give  its  pupils  such 
artistic  and  technical  training  as  will  enable  them  to  enter 
any  industry  that  requires  design  and  to  become  competent 
designers  after  having  mastered  the  technical  requirements 
of  the  particular  industry. 

Pupils  are  admitted  after  having  passed  competitive  ex- 
aminations in  free-hand  and  geometrical  drawing.  They  must 
be  of  French  nationality  and  over  thirteen  years  of  age.  There 
are  about  fifty-five  pupils  admitted  each  year.  The  enrollment 
for  1 91 9  was  150. 

The  subjects  offered  are  as  follows: 

First  year — Drawing  from  plaster  casts,  modeling,  molding, 
geometrical  design,  elements  of  architecture,  history  of  art, 
water-color  painting. 

Second  year — Drawing,  modeling,  molding,  history  of  art, 
decorative  composition,  perspective,  anatomy,  furniture  de- 
signing, cabinet-making. 

'Third  year — ^History  of  styles,  history  of  costumes,  special 
design  courses  for  embroidery,  textile,  and  wall  papers. 

Drawing  from  the  cast  and  from  natural  objects  forms  the 
basis  of  all  instruction.  Much  attention  is  given  to  sketching 
and  drawing  from  memory.  A  general  course  in  design  is  given 
which  is  coordinated  with  practical  work  in  the  workshops 
of  the  school. 

There  are  eight  teachers,  mostly  graduates  of  French  art 
schools,  and  a  number  of  technical  instructors  who  are  chosen 
from  among  experienced  men  in  the  profession.  The  teachers 
of  design  are  usually  familiar  with  the  technical  processes  of 
the  various  crafts,  but  do  not  perform  any  commercial  work. 
A  majority  of  the  instructors  are  full-time  teachers,  and  about 
one-fifth  are  practical  men  selected  from  the  various  industries 
giving  part-time  service.  Salaries  range  from  7,000  to  11,000 
francs  per  year. 

The  large  percentage  of  graduates  enter  the  workshops  of 


372  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

the  various  applied-art  industries.  Others  become  designers  of 
textiles,  wall  papers,  laces,  furniture  and  metal  work,  ceramics 
and  interior  decorators.  The  latter  receivesalaries  in  beginning 
ranging  from  300  to  800  francs  per  month. 

ECOLE  MUNICIPALE  DE  DESSIN  ET  D'ART 
APPLIQUES  A  LTNDUSTRIE 

Paris 

There  are  a  number  of  municipal  schools  in  Paris,  the  object 
of  which  is  to  supply  an  apprentice  training  for  young  girls  in 
various  crafts  and  vocations.  The  one  described  here,  founded 
by  Elisa-Lemonnier,  aims  to  provide  for  girls  instruction  in 
applied  art  equivalent  to  that  offered  for  boys  in  the  schools 
Germain-Pilon  and  Bernard-Palissy.  The  school  is  supported 
by  the  city  of  Paris  and  is  administered  by  a  council  consist- 
ing of  one  representative  of  the  Prefecture  de  la  Seine,  one  art 
inspector,  one  member  of  the  Ministry  of  Industry  and  Com- 
merce, two  members  of  the  Patrons  Committee  and  the  direc- 
tress. It  has  an  advisory  committee  of  manufacturers  which, 
however,  exercises  no  influence  on  the  nature  and  methods 
of  instruction. 

An  elementary  course  and  an  advanced  course,  both  of  three 
years,  are  maintained. 

Pupils  are  admitted  to  the  elementary  course  at  the  ages 
of  thirteen  to  fifteen  years,  and  for  the  higher  courses  at  the 
ages  of  fifteen  to  twenty  years,  after  being  submitted  to  an 
examination.  The  average  attendance  in  each  class  is  forty- 
eight  pupils.  The  number  of  students  applying  is  so  large  that 
the  opportunity  for  selection  is  very  considerable. 

The  elementary  course  provides  both  a  good  general  educa- 
tion and  a  sound  foundation  in  drawing,  water-color,  model- 
ing and  the  elements  of  composition  and  design. 

The  advanced  course  comprehends  classroom  instruction 
in  composition  of  ornament,  architecture,  history  of  art,  com- 
parative anatomy,  practical  hygiene,  political  economy  and 
labor  legislation.  There  is  also  instruction  in  regard  to  the 
materials  and  processes  of  manufacture  of  laces,  embroider- 


INDUSTRIAL  ART  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE    373 

ies,  tapestry,  jewelry,  silver,  furniture,  ceramics,  glass,  enamel, 
leather  and  ivory. 

The  professional  instruction  includes  architectural  design 
as  related  to  interior  decoration,  design  for  wall  papers  and 
textiles  and  design  as  applied  to  the  above-mentioned  mate- 
rials. 

Practical  craft  classes  in  embroidery,  lace  making  and 
jewelry,  artificial  flower  making  and  pattern  making  for 
dressmakers  are  also  maintained. 

Work  in  designing  forms  the  major  part  of  the  instruction 
and  enables  a  student  to  adapt  himself  to  any  of  the  various 
branches  of  applied  art.  None  of  the  designs  or  craft  work 
made  by  the  pupils  in  the  school  are  sold. 

There  are  eleven  instructors  who  receive  salaries  ranging 
from  5,000  to  8,000  francs  per  year.  The  teachers  of  design 
are  thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  technical  requirements  of 
the  various  crafts  but  do  not  perform  any  commercial  work. 

A  large  part  of  the  graduates  enter  the  workshops  of  the 
industries  as  artists,  embroiderers,  lace  and  artificial  flower 
makers,  etc.  A  small  number  go  into  the  designing  rooms  of 
the  textile  and  wall-paper  industries. 

fiCGLE  PROFESSIONNELLE  DE  LA  CHAMBRE 
SYNDICALE  DE  LA  JOAILLERIE 

Paris 

The  Ecole  Professionnelle  de  la  Chambre  Syndicale  de  la 
Joaillerie  was  founded  in  1 864,  for  the  technical  training  of 
apprentices  and  workmen  for  the  jewelry  and  silversmith 
industry.  The  school  is  administered  by  the  syndicate  of 
jewelers,  which  also  supports  it  with  the  assistance  of  an 
annual  subsidy  from  the  Minister  of  Commerce.  It  is  well 
equipped  on  the  technical  side,  with  workshops  and  all  the 
necessary  machinery  for  the  making  of  jewelry  and  silver- 
smith work.  The  purpose  of  the  school  is  to  give  workers  and 
apprentices  a  more  complete  technical  and  artistic  education 
than  it  is  possible  to  obtain  in  the  workshop  of  the  average 
jewelry  establishment  of  today.  Design  is  only  an  incidental 


374  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

subject  and  forms  but  a  small  part  of  the  course.  All  instruc- 
tion is  given  individually. 

Pupils  are  admitted  at  the  age  of  sixteen  years  or  more. 
They  pay  a  fee  of  two  francs  per  month.  Between  seventy-five 
and  one  hundred  pupils  are  admitted  each  year.  Since  the 
war  the  attendance  of  the  school  has  somewhat  fallen  off  and 
the  opportunity  for  selection  is  small.  Instruction  is  given 
during  two  hours  in  the  evening. 

There  are  two  courses  offered,  of  from  one  to  three  years  in 
length: 

{d)  Elementary  Design  Course  (for  boys  and  girls) — Draw- 
ing and  modeling  from  samples,  perspective  and  geometry, 
composition,  and  drawing  from  flowers  and  animals. 

(b)  Course  fcr  Apprentices — ^The  tools  and  their  use,  prac- 
tical work  in  hammering,  filing  and  soldering,  making  of  pins, 
chains  and  brooches,  rings,  pendants  and  bracelets,  etc. 

In  1919  there  were  150  pupils  in  the  apprentice  courses. 
The  elementary  course  gives  the  student  sufficient  knowledge 
of  design  to  better  understand  the  models  placed  before  him 
for  subsequent  execution.  The  apprenticeship  course  makes 
him  acquainted  with  the  proper  use  of  the  various  tools  and 
materials.  The  teachers  are  all  practical  jewelers.  They  re- 
ceive salaries  of  from  7,000  to  12,000  francs  per  year  for  full 
time. 

ECOLE  NATIONALE  D'ART  DECORATIF 

Aubusson 

The  Ecole  Nationale  d'Art  Decoratif  d'Aubusson  was  es- 
tablished in  1883,  ^or  ^^^  training  of  workmen  and  designers 
in  the  art  of  tapestry  weaving.  The  school  is  supported  by  the 
city  and  state  and  is  administered  by  the  chef  d'administra- 
tion,  a  supervisor  and  the  director.  There  is  a  consulting 
committee  composed  of  local  manufacturers  of  tapestries. 

The  school  is  amply  equipped  on  the  technical  side  with 
weaving  sheds,  studios,  storerooms  and  a  library.  The  raw  ma- 
terial used  in  the  school  is  donated  by  the  local  manufacturers. 

The  purpose  of  the  school  is  to  train  workmen  and  designers 


INDUSTRIAL  ART  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE    375 

for  hand-woven  tapestries  and  to  give  them  both  a  knowledge 
of  the  technique  of  weaving  and  of  design. 

Its  teachers  are  selected  from  among  graduates  of  French 
art  schools  and  also  from  among  accomplished  masters  of  the 
industry. 

The  following  courses  are  provided: 

Decorative  Painting  Course — three  mornings  a  week,  8  to  12. 

Design  Course — six  evenings  a  week,  7  to  10. 

Decorative  Design  Course — four  afternoons  a  week,  1  to  4. 

Course  in  Drawing  on  Squared  Paper — two  afternoons  a 
week,  1  to  4. 

Practical  Weaving — every  morning  from  10  to  12. 

Three  years  are  devoted  to  the  courses. 

There  are  no  entrance  requirements.  Boys  may  enter  at 
eleven  years  of  age  and  girls  at  ten.  In  192 1  there  were  twenty- 
four  boys  and  forty-five  girls  in  the  decorative  painting  and 
design  course;  forty-six  boys  and  sixty- four  girls  in  the 
elementary  drawing  course;  two  boys  and  two  girls  in  the 
course  for  drawing  on  squared  paper,  and  twenty  pupils  in 
the  weaving  class. 

It  was  stated  by  the  director  that  to  the  extent  the  school 
confines  itself  to  the  instruction  of  copying  historic  examples 
it  is  supported  by  the  industry,  but  where  the  school  attempts 
to  leave  this  historic  ground  it  meets  opposition  from  the 
industry.  To  overcome  this  attitude  the  director  of  the  school 
has  of  his  own  initiative  solicited  modern  designs  for  tapestries 
from  well-known  artists,  and  has  his  pupils  execute  these  de- 
signs in  order  to  show  that  the  technique  of  weaving  is  equally 
well  suited  to  modern  design  or  to  period  design. 

This  institution  is  one  of  the  most  efficient  and  progressive 
schools  in  France,  and  the  excellent  quality  of  the  work  as 
shown  in  the  annual  exhibits  by  the  pupils  serves  to  prove 
that  good  results  may  be  obtained  without  devoting  an  un- 
proportionately  long  time  to  the  monotonous  task  of  drawing 
from  the  plaster  cast.  The  enthusiastic  personality  of  the 
director  undoubtedly  has  a  great  deal  to  do  with  the  high 
standard  of  work  attained  in  this  small  school.  Some  of  the 


376  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

manufacturers  pay  their  apprentices  to  take  courses  at  this 
school.  Small  scholarships  are  given  to  meritorious  pupils. 

There  are  three  teachers  receiving  salaries  ranging  from 
3,000  to  10,550  francs  per  year. 

No  craft  work  or  designs  executed  in  the  school  are  sold, 
as  the  local  manufacturers  object  to  such  practice. 

Most  of  the  graduates  enter  the  workshops  of  the  local  in- 
dustry and  about  five  per  cent,  go  into  the  designing  rooms. 
Such  graduates  start  with  a  wage  of  20  francs  a  day. 

Many  of  the  prominent  designers  of  the  Aubusson  tap- 
estries have  attended  this  school.  The  course  is  considered 
by  the  industry  as  a  very  important  means  of  training  both 
designers  and  workmen. 

fiCOLE  NATIONALE  D'ART  DECORATIF 

DE  LIMOGES 

Limoges 

The  Ecole  Municipale  des  Beaux-Arts  Appliques  a  ITndus- 
trie  was  founded  in  1868,  and  in  1881  it  became  a  national 
art  school.  The  object  of  the  school  is  to  train  boys  and  girls 
to  enter  the  artistic  side  of  the  main  industry  of  Limoges — 
the  principal  center  of  French  ceramic  production.  The  school 
is  amply  equipped  on  the  technical  side  with  laboratories, 
modeling  and  drawing  rooms,  lecture  halls,  ceramic  workshops 
and  an  excellent  ceramic  museum.  The  teachers  are  selected 
from  among  graduates  of  the  French  Art  Schools.  It  has  no 
advisory  committee. 

Students  are  admitted  between  the  ages  of  twelve  and 
sixteen  years  as  a  result  of  competitive  examination,  and  no 
charge  is  made  for  instruction. 

The  school  provides  a  general  preparatory  course  and  a 
special  course.  The  former  is  planned  as  a  general  art  educa- 
tion and  the  latter  is  for  those  preparing  themselves  for  the 
ceramic  industry,  and  enrolls  many  apprentices  in  the  trade. 
In  1 91 9  there  were  seventy-eight  pupils  in  the  preparatory 
course  and  forty- three  in  the  special  course. 

The  school  is  open  the  entire  year  with  the  exception  of  the 


INDUSTRIAL  ART  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE    377 

month  of  June.  The  hours  for  girls  are  from  8  to  12  and  from 
I  to  3 ;  and  for  boys  from  1 1  to  2  and  in  the  evenings  from  8 
to  10.  The  length  of  the  course  is  from  three  to  five  years. 
The  courses  provided  are  as  follows: 

(a)  General  Course  —  Geometrical  drawing,  perspective, 
architecture,  free-hand  drawing,  elementary  design,  flower 
drawing,  figure  and  animal  drawing,  anatomy,  composition 
of  ornaments,  history  of  ornaments,  principles  of  botany  as 
applied  to  ornamentation,  studies  and  sketches  from  ceramic 
products,  history  of  art,  modeling  of  flowers,  animals  and 
figures,  special  instruction  for  decoration  of  ceramics,  par- 
ticularly porcelain. 

(b)  Special  Course — Flower  painting  in  water  color,  oil,  and 
pastel;  china  painting;  etching  for  ceramics,  drawing  from 
plaster  casts  and  from  the  figure;  drawing  from  live  plants; 
painting  on  plates,  cups,  vases,  etc.,  with  technical  explana- 
tion as  to  choice  of  color,  enameling,  heat  of  ovens  and  kilns. 

The  students  are  first  given  a  thorough  training  in  drawing 
from  casts  and  natural  objects.  Later  on  they  are  required  to 
make  a  sketch  for  a  ceramic  decoration  and  by  carrying  out 
this  sketch  in  the  actual  material  become  familiar  with  the 
various  ceramic  processes  and  technical  requirements. 

Instruction  in  design  forms  the  major  part  of  the  course, 
technical  instruction  being  given  to  elucidate  the  various 
modifications  necessary  to  meet  technical  requirements. 

There  are  eight  teachers  and  one  lecturer,  their  salaries 
ranging  from  5,000  to  11,000  francs  per  year.  The  teachers  of 
design  have  had  some  practical  experience  in  the  manufacture 
of  ceramics.  These  teachers  do  not,  as  a  rule,  perform  any 
commercial  work. 

Graduates  entering  the  industry  are  required  to  serve  a 
short  apprenticeship  to  acquire  additional  practical  experi- 
ence. No  craft  work  or  designs  made  in  this  school  are  sold. 
It  is  stated  that  about  sixty  per  cent,  of  the  pupils  remain 
throughout  the  whole  course.  By  far  the  larger  percentage  of 
graduates  enter  the  workshops  of  the  industry  as  china  paint- 
ers, decorators,  and  ceramic  workers.  About  one-fifth  go  into 


378  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

the  designing  room.  Such  graduates  start  with  salaries  of  300 
to  500  francs  per  month. 

A  fairly  large  percentage  of  French  ceramic  designers  have 
been  trained  in  this  school.  As  regards  preparation  for  de- 
sign the  course  is  considered  by  the  industry  as  an  important 
means  of  training.  Ceramic  designers  in  France  are  relatively 
poorly  paid. 

ECOLE  NATIONALE  DES  BEAUX-ARTS  DE  LYON 

Lyons 

The  Ecole  Nationale  des  Beaux-Arts  de  Lyon  was  founded 
for  the  training  of  young  men  and  women  for  the  following 
pursuits:  painting,  sculpture,  architecture  and  commercial  de- 
sign. Special  attention  is  given  to  the  development  of  textile 
designers. 

The  school  is  supported  by  the  city  and  the  state,  and  is 
administered  by  a  council  of  administration  consisting  of  the 
mayor,  the  president  of  the  Chamber  of  Commerce,  inspector 
of  academies,  director  of  the  Ecole  Nationale  des  Beaux- 
Arts,  four  members  of  the  municipal  council,  and  nine  mem- 
bers selected  from  among  the  artists  and  manufacturers  of 
the  city. 

The  school  is  housed  in  an  old  government  palace  having 
large  and  well-lighted  studios.  A  complete  collection  of  plaster 
casts  and  stuffed  birds  supply  the  students  with  models.  Its 
teachers  are  selected  from  among  artists,  architects,  and  de- 
signers, and  are  appointed  by  the  Ministry  of  Public  Educa- 
tion and  Fine  Arts,  after  being  submitted  to  a  competitive 
examination.  They  are  full-time  teachers. 

Students  are  admitted  at  the  ages  of  from  fourteen  to 
twenty-four  years.  No  fees  are  charged.  Applicants  are  re- 
quired to  pass  the  entrance  examinations  which  are  compet- 
itive in  character.  The  number  of  pupils  attending  the  school 
varies  from  300  to  500. 

Courses  provided  are  as  follows: 

I.  Elementary  Drawing  Class — (a)  Drawing  from  plaster 


INDUSTRIAL  ART  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE    379 

casts  and  ornaments,  (b)  Drawing  from  life;  lectures  on 
anatomy,  history  of  art,  and  geometry. 

II.  Fine  and  Applied  Art  Classes — Painting,  sculpture, 
architecture ;  flower  painting  and  its  application  to  industry ; 
decorative  designing  and  modeling;  textile  design. 

The  length  of  the  courses  is  as  follows :  two  years  for  the 
elementary  drawing  class,  and  three  to  four  years  for  the  fine 
and  applied  art  classes.  The  hours  of  instruction  are  from  8 
to  12  and  from  1  to  5. 

All  students  are  given  a  fundamental  course  in  drawing 
from  plaster  casts  and  natural  objects,  also  lectures  on  anat- 
omy, history  of  art,  perspective,  and  decorative  geometry, 
and  stereometry  for  architects.  After  the  students  have  passed 
successfully  through  the  elementary  drawing  class  they  are 
admitted  to  the  fine  and  applied  art  classes,  where  they 
receive  individual  instruction  in  painting,  modeling,  archi- 
tectural drawing  and  design,  and  designing  for  the  industries. 

The  course  of  textile  design  is  considered  the  most  efficient 
in  France,  combining  technical  instruction  with  individual 
artistic  development.  It  is  taught  by  a  practical  textile  de- 
signer whose  forefathers  also  were  textile  designers.  The  course 
involves — 

I.  Drawing  of  flowers  in  natural  aspect,  (a)  in  black  and 
white,  (b)  in  gray,  (c)  in  color. 

II.  Conventional  drawing  of  flowers. 

III.  The  development  of  decorative  motives,  and  adaption 
to  textile  designs. 

IV.  Study  of  the  use  of  textiles  and  of  historic  and  modern 
garments. 

The  textile  manufacturers  contribute  to  a  fund  which  is 
used  for  sending  the  most  promising  pupils  to  Paris,  where 
they  study  the  fashions  of  the  foremost  couturiers  and  visit 
theatres  and  races,  for  the  purpose  of  making  sketches  which 
they  use  later  for  original  work. 

Some  of  the  textile  designs  developed  in  this  school  have 
been  carried  out  in  the  actual  material  by  the  pupils  of  the 
Ecole  Municipale  de  Tissage  de  Lyon.  The  cooperation  of 


38o  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

those  two  institutions  has  been  of  great  value  in  familiarizing 
the  designer  with  the  technical  requirements  of  the  machine. 
None  of  the  designs  made  in  the  school  are  sold. 

The  pupils  of  the  textile  course  are  required  to  copy  many- 
drawings  in  the  famous  Textile  Museum  of  Lyons  in  order  to 
obtain  a  thorough  knowledge  of  period  design.  Chevereux's 
work  on  color  is  used  as  a  basis  for  instruction.  Lectures  are 
given  by  the  professors  explaining  the  technical  requirements 
which  influence  textile  design.  Students  are  required  to  con- 
sider cost  of  production  in  making  their  designs. 

There  are  three  instructors  in  each  of  the  courses.  Their 
salaries  are  from  5,000  to  7,000  francs  per  year.  The  instructor 
of  the  textile  design  course  was  a  practical  textile  designer  but 
no  longer  works  for  the  trade,  as  both  the  lack  of  time  and 
his  social  position  as  a  teacher  render  this  impossible. 

The  textile  course  contains  both  boys  and  girls.  It  is  stated 
that  the  boys  obtain  superior  results.  Most  of  the  pupils  are 
children  of  textile  designers  or  workers. 

About  ninety  per  cent,  of  the  students  are  reported  to 
remain  throughout  the  whole  course.  By  far  the  larger  per- 
centage of  graduates  enter  the  design  studios  of  textile  estab- 
lishments. The  remaining  graduates  find  employment  in  inde- 
pendent design  studios  in  Paris  or  as  free-lance  designers. 
They  begin  with  salaries  of  from  300  to  1,200  francs  per 
month.  Some  of  the  eminent  designers  in  the  trade  have  been 
graduates  from  this  school.  Textile  designers  in  France  are 
relatively  well  paid. 

The  course  in  design  at  the  Ecole  des  Beaux-Arts  is  con- 
sidered by  the  industry  as  an  important  means  of  training. 
There  is  considerable  cooperation  from  the  textile  industry, 
although  the  textile  houses  of  Lyons  are  inclined  to  buy  their 
designs  in  Paris,  as  it  is  an  accepted  belief  that  only  Paris 
can  produce  the  best  art.  Lately,  however,  there  is  a  tendency 
to  acknowledge  the  high  quality  of  design  as  developed  in  this 
school  by  greater  practical  support. 

There  is  a  municipal  school  of  design  in  the  city  that  pre- 
pares girls  for  entrance  into  the  Ecole  des  Beaux-Arts. 


INDUSTRIAL  ART  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE    381 

fiCGLE  MUNICIPALE  DE  TISSAGE 

Lyons 

The  ficole  Municipale  de  Tissage  de  Lyon  was  founded  for 
the  instruction  in  weaving  of  apprentices  and  workmen  of  the 
textile  industries. 

The  school  is  supported  jointly  by  the  city  of  Lyons  and 
the  Chamber  of  Commerce.  It  is  administered  by  a  council 
consisting  of  a  municipal  counsellor  and  an  art  inspector,  a 
representative  of  the  Ministry  of  Industry  and  Commerce, 
and  the  Administrative  Commission  of  Industrials  of  Lyons. 
An  advisory  committee  of  manufacturers  insures  an  intimate 
contact  of  the  school  with  the  problems  and  needs  of  the 
industry. 

It  is  well  equipped  on  the  technical  side  with  weaving  sheds 
containing  hand  looms  as  well  as  the  most  modern  power 
looms,  and  also  with  a  number  of  laboratories.  The  purpose 
of  the  school  is  to  train  workmen  for  the  textile  industry  and 
to  acquaint  them  with  the  use  of  new  types  of  machines.  No 
attempt  is  made  to  develop  designers. 

Students  are  admitted  at  the  ages  of  thirteen  to  fifteen 
years  and  are  submitted  to  an  examination  in  French  dic- 
tation, mathematics  and  geometry.  The  fees  are  175  francs 
per  year. 

Courses  are  provided  in  the  technology  of  silk  weaving 
and  the  theory  of  silk  manufacture  and  its  practical  applica- 
tion. Forty-three  hours  per  week  are  divided  into  eighteen 
hours  of  theory,  twenty-three  hours  of  practice  and  two  hours 
of  design.  The  course  is  of  one  year's  duration.  In  191 9  there 
were  thirty  students  in  the  textile  courses. 

The  students  are  first  taught  the  use  of  hand  looms  to 
familiarize  themselves  with  the  fundamental  principles  of 
weaving.  After  having  mastered  this  they  are  given  instruc- 
tion on  more  complicated  power  looms.  Besides  the  practical 
course  there  is  a  technical  course  in  which  a  knowledge  of 
the  technology  of  weaving  is  given,  as  well  as  instruction  in 
the  nature  of  fibres,  principally  silk,  and  their  treatment. 


382  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

There  is  some  instruction  in  drawing  and  designing  for  the 
weaver's  use  and  in  card  cutting  for  Jacquard  weaving. 

There  is  one  instructor  of  design  who  is  a  practical  textile 
designer  working  for  the  industry  in  his  spare  time.  Some  of 
the  fabrics  turned  out  by  the  students  are  bought  by  the 
industry,  which  also  furnishes  most  of  the  raw  material  used 
in  the  school.  Practically  all  graduates  of  this  school  enter 
the  industry  as  workmen,  i.e.,  weavers,  dyers,  carders,  card 
cutters,  etc. 

fiCOLE  NATIONALE  DE  CERAMIQUE 
ANNEXEE 
A  LA  MANUFACTURE  NATIONALE  DE  S£VRES 

The  Ecole  Nationale  de  Ceramique  was  founded  for  the 
development  of  expert  technicians  for  the  ceramic  industries. 
The  school  is  supported  by  the  state  and  administered  by  the 
Ministry  of  Fine  Arts,  the  director  of  the  Manufacture,  and 
the  director  of  the  school.  There  is  no  advisory  committee, 
but  a  number  of  prominent  manufacturers  of  ceramics  are 
members  of  the  jury  of  examination.  The  institution  is  well 
equipped  on  the  technical  side  with  chemical  laboratories, 
modeling  rooms,  turning  rooms,  furnaces,  and  lecture  halls. 
The  famous  ceramic  museum  of  the  Manufacture  de  Sevres 
is  at  the  service  of  the  student. 

Students  are  admitted  at  the  age  of  eighteen  years.  All 
instruction  is  free  of  charge.  Only  seven  pupils  are  admitted 
each  year — five  boys  and  two  girls.  Inasmuch  as  the  number 
applying  is  about  three  times  as  many  as  those  admitted,  the 
opportunity  for  selection  is  considerable.  The  mornings  are 
devoted  to  theoretical  instruction  and  the  afternoons  to  the 
practical  work. 

The  length  of  course  is  four  years.  In  191 9  there  were  about 
thirty  pupils  in  the  ceramic  classes. 

There  are  eleven  teachers  in  these  courses,  selected  from 
among  graduates  of  the  school,  or  from  among  men  prominent 
in  the  industry.  Their  salaries  range  from  5,000  to  7,000 


INDUSTRIAL  ART  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE    383 

francs  per  year.  There  is  one  teacher  of  design  who  is  a  grad- 
uate of  a  French  art  school. 

The  effort  of  the  school  is  to  develop  technical  ceramic 
experts  qualified  to  fill  any  position  in  this  important  French 
industry.  The  designer  is  only  an  incidental  product,  and 
instruction  in  design  forms  only  a  small  part  of  the  course. 
Theoretical  instruction  is  given  in  classes,  while  the  practical 
instruction  is  given  individually.  By  far  the  larger  percentage 
of  graduates  enter  the  industry  as  organizers,  producers, 
expert  technicians  and  superintendents  of  manufacture.  Only 
a  small  percentage  of  the  French  ceramic  designers  have  had 
experience  in  this  school,  and  as  a  preparation  for  work  in 
design  the  course  is  not  considered  by  the  industry  as  an 
important  means  of  training. 

ECOLE  DE  LA  MANUFACTURE  NATIONALE  DES 

GOBELINS 

This  school  was  founded  in  the  seventeenth  century  for  the 
training  of  designers  and  weavers  of  Gobelin  tapestries. 

The  school  is  supported  by  the  state  and  is  administered 
by  a  director  and  three  instructors  who  are  appointed  by 
the  Ministry  of  Public  Education  and  Fine  Arts.  There  is  no 
advisory  committee.  The  school  has  no  museum  collection, 
but  a  great  number  of  valuable  historic  tapestries  are  brought 
to  this  institution  for  repairs,  which  offer  the  pupils  an  excel- 
lent opportunity  for  study.  The  teachers  are  former  graduates 
of  the  school.  Only  four  to  six  pupils  are  admitted  to  the 
tapestry  course  each  year,  entering  at  the  age  of  sixteen  and 
remaining  for  about  two  years  in  this  class,  after  which  they 
enter  the  manufacture  as  Gobelin  workers.  The  plan  of  in- 
struction is  as  follows : 

(a)  Elementary  Course — Drawing  from  plaster  ornaments, 
head  and  figures,  drawing  and  painting  from  flowers,  stuffed 
birds,  etc. 

(b)  Special  Design  Course — Designing  and  composition  for 
tapestry  weaving,  color  work  and  technical  instruction,  paint- 


384  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

ing  from  flowers,  fruits  and  birds,  lectures  on  the  history  of 
the  Gobelins. 

There  are  three  teachers  in  the  design  course  who  are 
Gobelin  artists  themselves  and  former  graduates  of  the  school. 

Most  of  the  designs  are  modeled  after  historic  examples  or 
else  designed  by  noted  French  artists.  Designing  is  taught  to 
enable  the  weaver  to  more  intelligently  follow  form  and 
color  in  the  historic  examples  and  be  able  to  arrange  designs 
from  historic  motives.  The  artistic  attitude  of  the  institution 
is  somewhat  conservative. 

The  pupils  in  the  Gobelin  course  work  on  the  loom  during 
the  greater  part  of  the  day,  receiving  theoretical  instruction 
for  several  hours  in  the  morning  and  afternoon.  No  craft  work 
or  designs  made  in  the  school  are  sold,  but  the  pupils  and 
Gobelin  artists  are  allowed  to  weave  Gobelins  themselves 
which  they  can  sell  for  their  own  profit.  All  the  work  in  the 
establishment  is  executed  for  the  government. 


APPLIED  ART  SCHOOLS  IN  SWITZERLAND 

"Switzerland  presents  a  striking  example  of  a  small  nation 
holding  a  creditable  place  in  the  economic  struggle  with 
larger  and  more  powerful  nations,  by  reason  in  great  part  of 
the  complete  provision  for  the  education  of  its  people  and  the 
practical  character  of  that  education."* 

Education  in  Switzerland  is  very  largely  a  matter  of  local 
direction.  The  cantons  are  far  older  in  their  organization  and 
traditions  than  the  central  government,  and  they  exercise 
considerable  influence  in  the  regulation  of  schools  within 
thoxr  provenance.  For  this  reason  the  character  of  instruction, 
both  in  elementary  and  vocational  education,  differs  very 
considerably  in  the  different  cantons  of  Switzerland. 

Since  the  beginning  of  exchange  and  commerce,  main 
trading  routes  have  passed  through  Switzerland  and  it  has 
constantly  felt  the  artistic  influence  of  its  immediate  neigh- 
bors. In  the  field  of  applied  art  the  Swiss  have  drawn  from 
the  French  gracefulness  and  freedom  of  expression,  from  the 
Germans  technical  excellence  and  thoroughness,  and  from 
Austrian  and  Hungarian  sources  stimulus  towards  new 
motives  and  ideas.  Though  naturally  conservative,  the  Swiss 
people  of  late  years  have  struck  out  courageously  to  conquer 
new  lands  in  the  world  of  industrial  art.  This  effort  has  been 
energetically  supported  by  the  government,  which  finds  in  the 
development  of  new  industries  and  crafts  one  of  the  few  ways 
to  insure  continued  prosperity  to  a  country  entirely  depend- 
ent upon  imports  for  most  of  its  raw  materials. 

Emigration  and  the  decline  of  the  hotel  industry  during 
the  war  brought  about  a  financial  condition  that  emphasizes 
this  necessity  for  stimulating  new  ideas  and  improving  the 
products  of  those  already  existing.  In  the  field  of  industrial 
art  the  government  lends  its  support  not  only  in  liberal 
financial  grants  but  in  expert  direction  and  advice.  It  takes 
up  the  problem  at  its  very  beginnings  in  the  elementary 
schools  and  by  a  well  organized  and  sanely  coordinated  sys- 

•From  Report  of  Commissioner  of  Education  for  year  ending  June  30, 1912,  page  535. 


386  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

tern  carries  art  instruction  through  the  secondary  schools  to 
its  highest  and  best  expression  in  the  specialized  schools  of 
applied  art. 

Free-hand  drawing  is  compulsory  in  the  primary  schools, 
where  the  subject  is  taught  by  the  class  teacher.  A  distinctive 
characteristic  of  the  work  in  the  secondary  schools  is  the  re- 
quirement of  algebra,  technical  drawing,  and  one  foreign 
language  from  all  students. 

In  the  Industrial  Drawing  Schools  of  the  smaller  towns 
classes  in  free-hand  and  mechanical  drawing,  and  in  design- 
ing and  color  work  are  provided. 

Of  a  higher  grade  are  the  Handicraft  Schools  and  Trade 
Courses  for  those  engaged  in  the  industries.  These  courses 
cover  two  or  three  years  and  include  workshop  training. 
Examples  of  this  type  of  school  are  the  Industrial  Art  Schools 
of  Zurich  and  Berne. 

The  aim  of  the  industrial  art  divisions  of  the  industrial 
schools  is  to  improve  workers,  and  especially  designers,  on 
the  art  side  of  their  crafts.  Only  the  larger  cities,  such  as 
Zurich,  Berne,  Geneva,  and  Basel  have  schools  of  this  type. 
Applied-art  instruction  is  also  offered  in  the  courses  of  other 
industrial  schools. 

A  federal  law  which  compels  the  trade  apprentice  to  attend 
a  continuation  school  during  the  three  or  four  years  of  his 
apprenticeship  affords  an  opportunity  for  a  great  number  of 
young  people  to  obtain  instruction  in  drawing  and  other 
subjects  relating  to  their  respective  trades  which  the  trade 
itself  does  not  give.  This  scheme  is  highly  approved  of  by  the 
manufacturer  and  its  results  deemed  extremely  beneficial  as 
tending,  among  other  things,  to  develop  better  taste  in  the 
workers  in  the  various  trades. 

The  applied -art  schools  have  been  developed  to  a  high 
standard  of  efficiency  and  in  many  of  their  activities  may 
serve  as  models.  A  very  large  proportion  of  the  designers  in 
Swiss  industries  are  graduates  of  these  schools,  and,  in  conse- 
quence, they  exert  a  strong  influence  in  maintaining  a  high 
standard  of  artistic  attainment  in  the  industries  of  the  coun- 


INDUSTRIAL  ART  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE     387 

try.  The  equipment  of  the  schools  is  excellent.  Because  of  the 
reduction  in  the  educational  budget,  due  to  the  war,  the 
schools  suffer  at  present  from  lack  of  funds.  Without  excep- 
tion the  schools  are  supported  by  the  municipality,  or  by  the 
municipality,  canton,  and  state. 

Not  only  does  the  government  give  direct  financial  assist- 
ance to  the  schools  but  it  also  assists  with  orders  for  the  work 
of  pupils  and  graduates.  An  example  of  this  aid  is  afforded  by 
the  highly  artistic  posters  used  by  the  Swiss  railroads  in  their 
extensive  advertising  propaganda.  A  large  majority  of  the 
designs  of  these  posters  are  the  work  of  former  pupils  of  the 
art  schools.  It  is  reported  that  about  ninety  per  cent,  of  all 
designs  used  in  Swiss  industries  are  produced  by  Swiss  de- 
signers. About  two  thirds  of  these  designers  are  said  to  be 
employed  in  establishments,  the  remainder  to  be  working  as 
free-lances. 

The  marked  success  of  these  schools,  both  from  an  artistic 
and  from  a  practical  standpoint  is  largely  due  to  the  very 
high  quality  of  their  teaching  staffs.  Most  of  the  teachers  are 
graduates  of  the  Swiss  applied-art  schools,  and  in  many 
instances  are  highly  accomplished  artists  or  designers.  Their 
time,  when  not  teaching,  is  often  devoted  to  practical  pro- 
ductive work,  and  many  of  them  spend  part  of  their  vacations 
at  work  in  large  industrial  plants  in  order  to  increase  their 
knowledge  of  modern  machine  requirements.  The  director 
and  head  teachers  of  the  Zurich  school  are  artists  of  eminence, 
and  they  are  allowed  sufficient  free  time  to  pursue  their 
artistic  work,  the  burden  of  routine  teaching  being  carried 
by  the  regular  instructors.  The  large  influence  of  the  director 
and  head  teachers  results  mainly  from  their  personalities  and 
their  work  as  master  artists.  Their  chief  task  is  the  creation 
of  a  high  artistic  standard  within  the  school  and  the  inspi- 
ration of  a  limited  number  of  pupils  to  the  highest  possible 
efforts. 

The  day  students  in  these  schools  are  young  men  who  in- 
tend to  become  designers  and  craftsmen,  as  well  as  appren- 
tices working  in  the  trades.  In  some  schools  there  are  also 


388  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

special  classes  for  assistants  and  masters.  Before  a  pupil  is 
admitted  he  is  required  to  pass  an  examination  to  determine 
his  artistic  and  technical  abilities.  The  number  of  pupils  is 
strictly  limited  to  a  definite  number  to  assure  the  best  instruc- 
tion. The  majority  of  the  graduates  of  the  applied-art  schools 
find  employment  in  the  various  related  industries  as  de- 
signers, weavers,  sculptors,  jewelers,  printers,  lithographers, 
advertising  artists,  etc.,  and  many  become  highly  successful 
free-lance  designers.  The  methods  of  instruction  are  progres- 
sive, and  in  the  estimation  of  the  pupil  and  the  employer  the 
results  are  considered  of  the  highest  quality.  A  point  to  be 
stressed  is  that  in  the  higher  branches  individual  instruction 
predominates. 

The  museum  of  the  applied-art  school  in  Zurich  is  a  model 
of  its  kind,  consisting  of  a  small  but  well-selected  and  well- 
displayed  collection  of  craft  products,  mostly  modern.  The 
same  institution  arranges  temporary  exhibits  treating  one 
side  of  a  problem  at  a  time.  One  of  the  recent  exhibitions 
dealt  with  modern  German  posters,  one  with  modern  and  old 
books,  and  another  with  the  various  technical  requirements 
of  reproduction  by  printing.  For  these  exhibitions  no  efforts 
are  spared  and  only  the  best  is  shown. 

GEWERBE  SCHULE 

Zurich,  Switzerland 

The  Gewerbe  Schule,  Zurich,  was  founded  originally  as  an 
applied-art  school  (Kunstgewerbe  Schule)  for  the  training  of 
designers  and  craftsmen  for  the  industrial  arts.  Since  191 1 
the  institution  has  been  united  with  the  Zurich  Trade  School 
(Gewerbe  Schule)  under  one  administration  and  housed  in  a 
common  building.  It  was  found  that  the  benefits  derived 
from  a  close  cooperation  between  the  technical  and  artistic 
sides  of  the  various  applied-art  industries  was  of  value  to  both. 
The  technician  in  this  way  came  to  a  better  understanding  of 
the  value  of  good  design,  while  the  designer  in  turn  was  able 
to  acquire  knowledge  and  inspiration  from  the  technical 
departments. 


INDUSTRIAL  ART  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE    389 

The  purpose  of  the  school  is  to  train  designers  and  crafts- 
men and  also  to  develop  highly  skilled  workmen.  The  main 
object  is  to  develop  applied- art  designers  who  are  able  to 
create  designs  of  the  highest  order  and  thereby  advance  the 
standard  of  Swiss  designs,  and  not  to  train  designers  who  are 
merely  copyists  and  who  only  adapt  others'  ideas  for  a 
specific  technical  purpose. 

The  school  is  supported  by  the  state,  the  canton,  and  the 
city,  and  is  administered  by  the  Ministry  of  Education  and 
the  director  of  the  school.  It  has  an  advisory  committee 
consisting  of  artists,  manufacturers,  and  master  craftsmen.  A 
strong  contact  is  maintained  with  the  industry  through  the 
workmasters.  It  is  well  equipped  with  drawing  rooms,  work- 
shops, lecture  halls,  libraries,  and  exhibition  rooms.  The 
applied-art  museum  attached  to  the  school  contains  a  large 
collection  of  historic  examples  and  also  a  separate  collection 
of  modern  craftwork,  all  of  which  has  been  selected  with 
great  care  from  craft  products  of  various  countries,  and  all 
objects  are  selected  with  a  view  to  serving  as  examples  for 
the  students  of  that  which  is  best  and  most  characteristic  in 
each  country. 

Pupils  are  admitted  at  the  ages  of  twelve  to  twenty- three 
years,  after  demonstrating  that  they  will  profit  by  the  instruc- 
tion given.  The  opportunity  for  selection  is  very  great  as  all 
classes  are  limited  to  a  small  number  so  as  to  insure  efficient 
results,  and  the  number  applying  is  much  greater  than  the 
number  enrolled.  The  following  courses,  of  from  two  to  five 
years'  duration,  are  given  in  the  Applied  Art  Division  of  the 
school : 

I.  Practical  Applied-Art  Courses.  Preparatory  Class — with 
courses  in  drawing  and  painting  from  objects,  nature  study, 
modeling,  free-hand  drawing,  lettering;  followed  by  courses 
for  lithographers  and  illustrators,  bookbinders,  printers, 
metal  workers,  decorative  painters,  interior  decorators,  em- 
broiderers and  fashion  draftsmen;  and  special  courses  in 
painting  of  wooden  boxes. 

II.  Apprentice  Courses  for  bookbinders,  printers,  gold- 


390  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

smiths  and  engravers,  lithographers,  painters,  silversmiths 
and  chasers. 

In  1919  there  was  an  average  of  twenty  pupils  in  each  of 
the  applied-art  classes,  twenty- five  pupils  in  each  evening 
class  for  masters  and  assistants  and  sixty-five  pupils  in  each 
apprentice  class. 

All  instruction  in  drawing  is  given  from  the  point  of  view 
that  drawing  should  be  a  means  to  an  end  and  not  an  end  in 
itself.  Theoretical  instruction  is  given  in  classes  and  practical 
work  given  individually. 

Designs  and  craftwork  made  by  the  students  are  sold  by 
them  after  the  approval  of  the  school  has  been  obtained.  In 
this  way  only  the  very  best  work  is  sold  and  the  school  retains 
its  high  standing  in  the  industry. 

The  teachers,  fifty-seven  in  number,  are  selected  from 
among  eminent  artists,  craftsmen,  and  workmasters.  The 
director  of  the  school  is  a  well-known  artist  and  he,  with  the 
aid  of  his  staff,  exerts  a  strong  artistic  and  personal  influence 
on  the  students.  The  head  teachers  in  each  department  are 
artists  or  craftsmen  who  continue  to  work  in  their  own  pro- 
fessions and  in  this  way  influence  the  pupils  through  their 
personal  accomplishments.  Their  salaries  range  from  5,000 
to  12,000  francs  per  year.  They  are  not  bound  to  strict  routine 
teaching  which  would  prevent  them  from  working  in  their  own 
profession. 

About  eighty  per  cent,  of  the  students  entering  are  re- 
ported to  remain  throughout  the  entire  course.  By  far  the 
larger  percentage  of  graduates  of  applied  art  courses  enter 
the  designing  rooms  of  the  industry,  while  about  twenty  per 
cent  become  free-lance  designers.  Such  graduates  receive 
salaries  ranging  from  250  to  400  francs  per  month.  Many  of 
the  successful  Swiss  industrial  designers  have  been  graduated 
from  this  school  and  manufacturers  report  that  it  exercises 
a  strong  influence  in  advancing  the  standards  of  industrial 
design. 

The  exhibition  of  the  pupils'  work  at  the  school  showed  a 
very  high  quality  both  in  the  preparatory  class  and  that 


INDUSTRIAL  ART  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE     391 

representing   the   classes   in   illustration   and   lithography, 
jewelry  and  metal  work  and  embroidery  and  fashion  drawing. 


ECOLE  DES  ARTS  ET  METIERS 

Geneva,  Switzerland 

The  Ecole  des  Arts  et  Metiers,  was  founded  for  the  train- 
ing of  designers  and  highly  skilled  workmen.  It  is  supported 
by  the  state,  the  canton  and  the  city  of  Geneva  and  is  admin- 
istered by  a  commission  of  thirty  people,  including  indus- 
trials, artisans,  artists  and  workmen.  The  director  together 
with  five  heads  of  the  departments  constitute  the  school  coun- 
cil. The  director  is  appointed  by  the  president  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Public  Education. 

Pupils  who  have  passed  the  seventh  year  in  the  primary 
school  or  the  first  year  of  a  professional  school,  and  who  are 
over  fourteen  years  of  age,  are  admitted,  as  well  as  those  who 
cannot  meet  these  requirements  but  pass  entrance  exami- 
nations. Swiss  pupils  pay  no  fees  but  others  pay  20  francs  per 
term.  About  fifty  pupils  are  admitted  each  year. 

Courses  are  given  in  Decorative  Painting,  Enameling,  En- 
graving, Gold  and  Silversmithing,  Jewelry,  Carving  in  Wood 
and  Stone,  Iron  Work,  Embroidery  and  Batik.  The  plan  of 
instruction  in  the  Applied  Art  Division  is  as  follows: 

General  Course — Preparatory  course  in  design;  ornamental 
design;  drawing  from  figure  or  cast;  modeling  from  figure  and 
ornament;  drawing  of  elementary  architectural  design;  dec- 
orative composition;  designing  for  embroidery. 

Practical  Course — Decorative  painting, enameling,  chasing, 
engraving,  jewelry,  and  goldsmithing  and  silver-smithing; 
coloring  of  metals;  carving  in  stone;  carving  in  wood;  iron 
work;  molding. 

Nothing  made  in  the  school  is  sold. 

There  are  sixteen  teachers  who  are  for  the  most  part 
graduates  of  either  French  or  Swiss  teachers'  training  schools 
or  applied-art  schools.  Most  of  these  teachers  have  had  prac- 
tical experience. 


392  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

About  sixty  per  cent,  of  those  entering  remain  throughout 
the  entire  course.  By  far  the  larger  percentage  of  graduates 
enter  the  workshops  of  the  various  industries,  and  about 
twenty  per  cent,  go  into  the  designing  rooms.  Such  graduates 
receive  salaries  ranging  from  250  to  400  francs  per  month. 

KANTONALES  GEWERBEMUSEUM  (KUNSTGE- 

WERBLICHE  LEHRANSTALT) 

Bern 

This  school  is  a  department  of  the  Applied  Art  Museum 
and  was  founded  for  the  training  of  designers  and  workmen 
in  wood-carving,  ceramics  and  lace  making,  and  its  main 
object  is  to  improve  industries  carried  on  in  the  homes  and  to 
stimulate  the  taking  up  of  new  crafts  by  the  peasants  to 
assist  the  meagre  returns  from  their  farms  and  thereby  to 
discourage  emigration.  In  addition  to  the  traditional  wood- 
carving  and  lace  making,  particular  attention  is  paid  to  tap- 
estry weaving,  hand  decorating  of  wooden  boxes,  and  making 
of  split-wood  baskets. 

The  school  is  supported  by  the  municipality  and  adminis- 
tered by  a  director  and  an  advisory  committee  consisting 
of  an  artist  and  five  persons  connected  with  the  industries. 
This  committee  exerts  a  practical  as  well  as  an  artistic  in- 
fluence upon  the  character  of  the  instruction  given  in  the 
school.  The  museum  contains  an  excellent  collection  of  old 
and  modern  products  of  applied  art. 

The  minimum  age  for  admittance  is  fourteen  years.  No 
entrance  examination  is  required,  but  applicants  must  show 
that  they  possess  sufficient  knowledge  to  profit  by  the  instruc- 
tion given.  The  number  attending  this  school  is  so  small 
(twenty-two  in  191 9)  that  it  is  possible  to  give  excellent  indi- 
vidual instruction  adapted  to  the  personal  needs  of  the  pupil. 
There  is  no  particular  plan  of  instruction;  the  pupils  work- 
ing with  their  teachers  in  large  master  studios,  each  occupied 
with  his  own  problem.  All  instruction  is  based  upon  the  exe- 
cution of  practical  problems  for  the  industries. 

There  are  three  teachers,  graduates  of  the  Swiss  art  schools. 


INDUSTRIAL  ART  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE    393 

who  give  part  of  their  time  to  instructing.  One  teaches  draw- 
ing, one  is  a  practical  ceramist  and  one  a  general  technician 
in  metal  and  wood  work.  The  latter  two  are  practical  workers 
in  the  industries.  The  salaries  received  range  from  3,500  to 
8,000  francs  per  year. 

The  length  of  time  the  pupils  remain  in  the  school  depends 
largely  upon  their  ability  upon  entering.  Some  remain  several 
years,  whereas  others  attend  for  but  a  short  period  in  order 
to  acquire  a  technical  knowledge  of  a  certain  craft.  The 
larger  percentage  of  the  pupils  eventually  become  designers, 
of  which  about  one-third  are  freelancers. 

Both  craft  work  and  designs  made  in  the  school  are  sold, 
the  sales  in  1918-19  amounting  to  1,930  francs. 

ALLGEMEINE  GEWERBESCHULE 

Basel,  Switzerland 

'The  Allgemeine  Gewerbeschuk  was  founded  for  the  training 
of  designers  and  skilled  workmen  for  the  various  applied  art 
industries.  Its  administration  is  in  the  hands  of  the  director 
of  the  school,  a  state  inspector  and  a  committee  of  artists, 
manufacturers  and  workmasters.  This  latter  committee  of 
supervision  exerts  a  considerable  influence  upon  the  methods 
and  nature  of  the  various  courses  oflFered  in  the  school. 

There  are  all-day  courses  in  drawing  and  painting,  and  in 
various  applied-art  subjects;  half-day  courses  for  apprentices 
in  lithography,  designing,  printing,  bookbinding  and  jewelry; 
and  evening  courses.  The  length  of  course  varies  from  three 
to  five  years.  In  191 9  there  were  264  pupils  in  the  day  classes 
and  41 9  evening  pupils. 

The  program  of  instruction  in  the  all-day  applied  art 
courses  is  as  follows: 

Decorative  Painting  Classes — Decorative  painting,  treat- 
ment of  flat  surfaces,  treatment  of  interiors  from  a  color 
standpoint,  lettering,  figure  drawing. 

Classes  in  Illustration — ^Practical  courses  in  lithography, 
applied  graphics,  nature  study  for  the  various  graphic  tech- 
niques. 


394  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

Class  for  Sculptors — Modeling  and  carving  in  stone  and 
wood,  drawing  from  the  figure. 

'Decorative  Design  and  practical  instruction  in  Embroidery. 

There  are  twenty-eight  teachers  who  have  been  selected 
from  among  graduates  of  Swiss  art  schools  and  who  receive 
salaries  ranging  from  3,coo  to  8,000  francs  per  year. 

This  school  gives  as  much  attention  to  the  development  of 
designers  as  to  the  training  of  highly  skilled  workmen.  The 
designer  is  the  main  product  of  the  day  courses,  while  the 
half-day  and  evening  courses  emphasize  the  development  of 
the  trained  workman.  Some  of  the  craft  work  made  in  the 
school  may  be  purchased  by  the  pupils  upon  paying  the  cost 
of  the  raw  material. 

About  eighty  per  cent,  of  the  pupils  entering  remain 
throughout  the  entire  course.  By  far  the  larger  proportion  of 
graduates  of  the  day  course  enter  the  designing  rooms  of  the 
industries  and  a  small  number  become  free-lance  designers. 
Such  graduates  start  with  the  modest  salary  of  from  200  to 
500  francs  per  month.  Most  of  the  graduate  apprentices  of 
the  evening  course  remain  in  the  workshops  of  the  industries 
as  painters,  photographers,  designers,  lithographers,  printers, 
bookbinders,  sculptors,  engravers,  chasers,  etc. 

SCHOOL  FOR  EMBROIDERY  AND  LACE  DESIGNERS 

(INDUSTRIE  UND  GEWERBEMUSEUM) 

St.  Gall 

The  School  for  Embroidery  and  Lace  Designers  connected 
with  the  Industrie  und  Gewerbemuseum  at  St.  Gall  is  a  very 
specialized  and  efficient  institution.  It  was  established  in 
1878  by  progressive  business  men  and  has  since  been  an  im- 
portant factor  in  the  development  of  the  city's  leading  indus- 
try. The  school  receives  subventions  from  the  state,  from  the 
canton,  and  from  the  city,  and  also  donations  from  the  manu- 
facturing interests  of  the  city.  Fees  are  nominal,  being  thirty 
francs  a  year. 

As  in  the  case  of  so  many  European  special  schools,  the 


INDUSTRIAL  ART  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE     395 

numbers  dealt  with  are  not  large,  averaging  about  thirty 
during  the  year,  of  which  about  one-third  are  girls.  The  stu- 
dents stay  three,  and  in  some  cases,  four  years,  and  on  the 
average  from  ten  to  twelve  complete  the  course  of  work. 
Students  must  have  completed  the  compulsory  common- 
school  course  to  be  admitted,  and  in  consequence  are  fifteen 
or  sixteen  years  of  age. 

The  school  adresses  itself  to  the  one  problem  of  training 
designers,  and  is  assisted  in  this  work  by  the  fine  collection  of 
laces  and  embroideries  displayed  in  the  museum  in  the  same 
building  and  also  by  the  extensive  library  and  collection  of 
samples  collected  in  book  form. 

Students  spend  their  first  year  largely  in  free-hand  drawing 
and  sketching  of  a  general  nature  and  enter  upon  the  special 
work  in  design  in  their  second  year.  Hand  embroidery  is 
taught  in  the  school,  various  materials  being  utilized. 

Graduates  of  the  school  are  to  a  certain  extent  employed 
by  the  manufacturing  concerns  in  St.  Gall.  A  larger  number, 
however,  operate  as  free-lance  designers  and  sell  their  designs 
to  the  manufacturers.  A  number  of  the  graduates  find  their 
way  to  other  countries  and  continue  their  work  as  designers. 


INDUSTRIAL  ART  EDUCATION 
IN  GERMANY* 
Dr.  James  P.  Haney 

Elementary  education  in  Germany  is  given  to  all  pupils 
in  the  Folk  schools  between  the  ages  of  six  and  ten.  Those 
who  do  not  intend  to  go  into  the  secondary  schools  remain  in 
the  Folk  schools  until  the  age  of  fourteen;  others  who  would 
advance  further  enter  the  secondary  schools  at  ten,  to  remain 
from  six  to  nine  years. 

There  are  three  main  divisions  of  secondary  schools,  which 
may  be  termed:  classical,  semi-scientific  and  scientific.  The 
requirements  in  classical  schools  (Gymnasien)  call  for  Greek, 
in  semi-scientific  (Realgymnasien)  schools,  for  mathematics 
and  Latin,  in  scientific  (Ober-Real)  schools,  for  modern  lan- 
guages, science  and  mathematics.  Each  of  these  schools  is 
organized  with  a  nine-year  curriculum.  Occasionally,  however, 
a  secondary  school  will  be  found  which  offers  only  the  first 
six  years  of  the  nine-year  course.  This  fact  is  indicated  in  the 
name  of  the  school  by  prefixing  "pro" — as  pro  real  gymnasium, 
which  indicates  a  semi-scientific  school,  accepting  its  pupils 
at  the  age  of  ten  and  graduating  them  six  years  later.  All  of 
these  schools  are  for  boys.  Schools  for  girls  are  less  definitely 
organized. 

Graduates  of  the  Folk  schools  are  not  eligible  for  advance- 
ment in  the  secondary  schools,  but  are  required  in  many  of 
the  German  states  to  follow  continuation  courses  during  the 
period  of  their  trade  apprenticeship.  After  the  completion  of 
the  continuation  course  in  the  Fortbildung  school,  the  stu- 
dents may  pursue  a  journeyman's  course,  in  the  "Gerwerbe" 
or  industrial  school.  The  two  latter  institutions  are  frequently 
found  in  the  same  building,  but  are  separate  schools,  gener- 
ally under  different  principals,  with  the  continuation  courses 
given  from  early  morning  until  seven  in  the  evening,  at  which 
time  the  industrial  school  courses  open  for  older  students. 

■5<Transcript  from  a  Report  on  "Art  Teaching  in  German  Schools"  made  to  Board  of 
Education  of  the  City  of  New  York,  1913. 


INDUSTRIAL  ART  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE    397 

Many  of  the  older  continuation  and  industrial  schools 
were  originated  and  supported  by  the  guilds  or  associations 
of  workmen.  A  number  are  still  supported  in  part,  but  the 
tendency  on  the  part  of  the  employer  is  to  demand  more  and 
more  in  the  way  of  state  and  city  support,  so  that  the  time 
cannot  be  far  distant  when  public  funds  will  defray  the  entire 
cost  of  their  maintenance. 

Drawing  is  taught  universally  throughout  the  German 
elementary  school  system.  It  has  long  since  passed,  if  indeed 
it  ever  knew,  the  stage  of  the  educational  "frill,"  and  is  re- 
garded as  an  essential  in  the  training  of  all  pupils,  boys  and 
girls,  no  matter  what  their  future  vocations  may  prove  to  be. 
The  instruction  in  drawing  is  for  the  most  part  given  by  grade 
teachers  to  their  own  pupils,  but  in  the  higher  classes,  it  is 
frequently  the  practice  to  assign  a  teacher  interested  in  the 
subject,  to  teach  the  work  in  several  of  the  upper  grades. 

In  most  Folk  schools,  the  drawing  in  the  lower  classes  is 
done  in  the  classroom  and  in  the  higher  classes  in  a  special 
room.  Pupils  furnish  their  own  equipment,  including  pencils, 
paper,  brushes,  crayon,  colors,  etc. 

The  drawing  taught  in  the  elementary  schools  is  succinctly 
stated  in  the  words  of  many  teachers  as  instruction  given 
"that  the  pupil  may  learn  to  see."  Drawing  lessons  are  usually 
given  in  all  but  the  lowest  of  the  eight  Folk  school  years.  In 
some  cases  no  formal  instruction  is  given  in  the  first  two  years, 
but  the  children  of  these  classes  are  asked  to  draw  from 
imagination  in  connection  with  other  lessons.  Instruction  is 
not  given  in  these  "drawing  lessons  from  fancy,"  and  the 
work  done,  while  free,  is  of  the  most  elementary  character. 

The  form  of  instruction  in  all  drawing  above  the  lowest 
grade  is  that  of  individual  aid.  General  explanation,  or  anal- 
ysis, of  the  model  is  rarely  given,  and  indeed  at  times  is  difficult, 
as  the  models  themselves  are  of  a  very  varied  character.  The 
supply  of  models  is  generally  ample,  and  it  is  not  unusual  to 
find  in  a  school  several  cases  full  of  mounted  leaves,  butter- 
flies and  other  insects,  seed  vessels,  shells,  feathers  and  still 
life.  The  simpler  models  are  used  in  the  lower  grades,  while  in 


398  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

the  higher  classes  there  appear  in  the  collection,  numbers  of 
vases,  boxes,  bottles,  baskets,  waxen  fruit  and  flowers,  can- 
dlesticks, tools,  etc.,  together  with  a  score  of  small  animals 
and  fishes  mounted  in  attractive  fashion. 

In  the  drawing  lesson,  individual  objects  are  placed  before 
individual  pupils  who  begin  work  forthwith.  Sometimes  a 
hint  or  two  will  be  given  upon  the  blackboard,  but  the  board 
itself  is  infrequently  used.  The  lesson  begun,  the  teacher 
moves  from  pupil  to  pupil,  correcting  individual  errors,  while 
the  class  as  a  whole  proceeds  to  draw  carefully  and  very 
slowly.  This  slow,  precise  drawing  is  a  marked  characteristic 
of  the  work  of  all  grades.  As  each  pupil  completes  his  outline, 
he  prepares  his  colors  and  lays  on  the  necessary  tone  or 
"wash,"  completing  his  work  with  the  same  careful  and 
labored  stroke  with  which  he  began  it.  Class  criticism  is  very 
infrequent,  and  illustrations  of  technique  confined  so  far  to 
personal  suggestion  that  it  may  fairly  be  said  that  class 
teaching,  as  such,  is  seldom  to  be  observed  in  an  elementary 
drawing  room.  What  is  seen  is  the  method  of  the  drawing 
studio  applied  to  the  teaching  of  beginners.  To  any  aesthetic 
quality  of  the  drawing,  reference  is  rarely,  if  ever,  made. 

This  method  of  instruction  results  in  work  marked  by 
much  accuracy  even  in  the  lower  grades,  though  a  certain 
tightness  and  rigidity  characterizes  it  in  all  classes.  The  best 
pupils  gain  the  power  to  reproduce  the  model  with  faithful 
care  and  great  neatness,  but  the  returns  from  diflPerent  pupils 
in  a  class  are  apt  to  vary  widely  in  their  execution. 

The  regular  instruction  in  drawing  begins,  as  has  been 
noted,  in  the  second  year.  It  is  then  taught  for  two  periods  a 
week  for  seven  years.  As  a  rule,  these  periods  are  consecutive 
with  a  brief  recess  between  them.  This  arrangement  permits 
from  an  hour  and  a  half  to  two  hours  of  continuous  work  and 
is  of  marked  advantage  in  the  upper  classes,  where  color  is 
used  and  much  must  be  done  to  care  for  materials  at  the 
opening  and  closing  of  the  lesson. 

The  course  of  study  difi'ers  in  its  details  in  the  different 
cities,  but  generally  is  developed  with  emphasis  upon  drawings 


INDUSTRIAL  ART  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE     399 

of  good  size  in  the  flat  in  the  earlier  years,  and  with  elaborate 
colored  and  shaded  drawings  in  the  highest  classes.  The  fol- 
lowing gives  the  usual  sequence: 

The  simpler  leaves,  fruits  and  geometric  forms  are  first 
ofi^ered  in  the  lowest  class,  followed  by  similar,  but  more 
difficult  forms  in  the  second  year,  and  these  by  feathers, 
simple  tools,  butterflies,  etc.  in  the  third;  insects,  seed  pods 
and  more  complicated  leaf  forms  in  the  fourth  and  fifth  and 
flowers  and  sprays  in  the  sixth.  In  the  seventh  and  eighth 
years,  foreshortening  is  taught  through  study  of  objects  in 
the  round  (vases,  bowls,  etc.),  and  perspective,  through  the 
representation  of  blocks,  boxes  and  books.  The  models  are 
nearly  always  presented  singly  (i.  e.,  few  groups  are  drawn), 
and  practically  always  in  color.  The  shading  in  the  colored 
drawings  is  generally  in  pencil,  with  wash  added  to  the  com- 
pleted sketch.  In  the  higher  years  these  shaded  color  draw- 
ings are  made  from  the  simpler  animal  and  bird  forms  seen 
on  a  level  with  the  eye  and  with  little  or  no  foreshortening. 

Drawing  is  taught  in  all  secondary  schools  after  the  first 
year.  In  the  "Gymnasium"  (classical  school)  it  is  required  in 
the  second,  third,  fourth  and  fifth  years,  and  is  elective  in  the 
four  higher  years.  In  the  "Realgymnasien"  and  "Ober-Real" 
schools,  it  is  required  from  the  second,  through  the  ninth 
year,  inclusive.  In  the  latter  schools  in  Saxony,  it  is  elective 
in  the  three  higher  years. 

The  nature  of  the  drawing  is  identical  in  all  schools.  It  is 
nearly  all  from  models,  with  here  and  there  a  school  or  an 
instructor  laying  special  emphasis  upon  some  one  phase  of 
this  work — perspective,  construction,  light  and  shade,  water- 
color.  There  is  no  attempt  to  diflferentiate  work  to  meet  the 
needs  of  different  classes  of  students,  so  both  classical  and 
scientific  gymnasia  show  work  undistinguished  by  any  element 
which  characterizes  the  particular  courses  of  study  of  these 
varying  institutions. 

Drawing,  to  the  art  teachers  of  the  secondary  schools, 
means  but  one  thing  and  that  is,  a  study  in  the  reproduction 
of  the  model  with  a  constantly  increasing  refinement.  Most 


400  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

of  these  teachers  have  been  technically  well  trained  and  are 
in  advance  of  graduates  of  our  own  brief  normal  art  courses. 
Under  the  more  active  of  these  instructors,  the  technical 
facility  developed  by  the  students  is  of  a  high  order.  It  is  to 
be  noted,  however,  that  this  skill  is  the  result  of  an  intensive 
scheme  of  instruction,  teaching  but  one  thing  and  that  for  a 
length  of  time,  equivalent  to  the  years  between  our  own 
primary  school  and  the  first,  or  second,  year  of  a  college 
course. 

From  the  foregoing,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  purpose  of  the 
secondary-school  drawing  is  not  to  be  differentiated  from 
that  stated  in  regard  to  the  elementary  schools.  The  emphasis 
is  placed  upon  the  development  of  individual  ability  to  make 
careful  pictorial  drawings,  in  different  media,  of  the  models 
offered  for  copy.  The  teaching  is  done  on  an  individual  basis. 
There  is  little  class  instruction,  but  much  personal  showing 
on  the  part  of  the  teacher.  The  work  is  practically  all  from 
models,  and  each  pupil  works  at  his  exercise  until  it  is  com- 
pleted and  then  begins  upon  another. 

Wide  differences  in  power  are  thus  developed,  and  each 
worker  is  advanced  as  rapidly  as  his  skill  will  permit. 

Well-equipped  drawing  rooms  are  found  in  all  secondary 
schools.  These  are,  as  a  rule,  of  large  size,  and  their  furnish- 
ings, especially  in  new  schools,  are  of  elaborate  description. 
Individual  drawing  desks  are  the  rule,  always  furnished  with 
model  stands.  In  some  cases,  these  stands  are  separate  from 
the  desks  and  are  arranged  as  small  shelves,  adjustable  in 
height,  on  movable  pedestals.  In  older  schools,  this  shelf  is 
found  attached  by  a  bracket  to  the  front  of  the  desk.  The  use 
of  the  individual  model  is  universal,  and  in  most  schools  ample 
storage  space  is  provided  for  large  collections  of  models. 

The  time  given  to  drawing  in  the  secondary  schools  varies 
somewhat  in  different  German  states.  As  a  rule,  it  is  required 
for  two  hours  a  week,  but  in  some  cases  this  time  is  increased 
to  three  hours  in  the  higher  classes.  The  hours  are  given  con- 
secutively, with  a  brief  recess  between  them.  The  plan  of 
work  requires  the  drawing  of  flat  objects — leaves,  feathers. 


INDUSTRIAL  ART  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE    401 

butterflies  and  other  insects — in  the  second  high-school  year 
(first  year  of  drawing),  followed  in  the  two  succeeding  years 
by  a  study  of  simple  foreshortening  and  perspective,  from 
boxes,  bowls,  toy  furniture,  wagons,  etc.  More  difficult  per- 
spective is  then  ofi^ered  in  drawing  of  tools  and  familiar  ob- 
jects, and  this  is  followed  by  the  drawing  of  birds  and  animals. 
In  the  two  higher  classes,  the  students  work  from  large 
models  in  groups  and  from  difficult  animal  forms.  They  are 
also  called  upon  to  make  free-hand  perspective  studies  of 
structural  details  —  halls,  vaultings,  stairways,  etc.  —  and 
occasionally  go  upon  sketching  trips  with  their  instructor  to 
the  museum,  or  out-of-doors  to  work  from  nature.  The  study 
of  casts  of  the  antique  is  not  common,  but  advanced  classes 
will  be  found  doing  some  portrait  work,  generally  in  crayon  or 
charcoal.  As  was  noted  in  the  case  of  the  elementary  schools, 
the  pupils  furnish  the  larger  part  of  their  drawing  equipment. 

In  the  upper  classes  of  the  secondary  schools,  a  great  vari- 
ety of  techniques  are  usually  to  be  seen.  Light  and  shade  are 
taught  from  the  earlier  steps  of  the  course,  being  developed 
through  pencil,  charcoal,  crayon,  water-color,  tempera  and 
pen-and-ink.  The  use  of  color  is  very  common  in  all  classes. 
Pencil  drawings  in  light  and  shade  are  often  to  be  found  exe- 
cuted in  an  excellent  technique.  Painting  in  oil-color  is  taught 
in  a  few  schools. 

As  has  been  previously  noted,  the  pupil  who  graduates  from 
the  Folk  school  must,  after  he  enters  upon  his  subsequent 
apprenticeship,  attend  a  continuation  school  for  certain 
hours  per  week,  until  his  apprenticeship  is  completed.  The 
time  spent  by  the  apprentice  in  the  school  varies  in  the  case 
of  different  trades.  In  general,  those  of  limited  scope — as 
barbers,  waiters,  etc.^ — require  fewer  hours  (four  to  six)  per 
week,  while  the  mechanical  trades  and  others  demanding  a 
high  degree  of  skill,  require  more  (seven  to  nine)  hours  per 
week.  Rarely  does  the  pupil  attend  the  total  required  number 
of  hours  on  a  single  day.  Generally  his  program  requires  at- 
tendance one  forenoon  and  one  afternoon,  the  sessions  being 
arranged,  so  far  as  possible,  to  meet  the  convenience  of  his 


402  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

employer.  The  latter  is  responsible  for  his  fees  and  subject 
to  a  fine  should  he  fail  to  attend  with  regularity. 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  continuation  school  system  was 
originally  established  to  carry  forward,  along  usual  lines,  the 
work  of  the  elementary  school.  The  classes  were  originally 
held  in  the  evening  and  on  Sunday  morning.  The  teachers 
came  from  the  elementary  schools  and  knew  nothing  of  the 
trades  in  which  the  young  apprentices  were  engaged.  This 
older  system  was  found  unsatisfactory  and  is  now  in  process 
of  profound  change.  Certain  cities  retain  it  in  part,  while 
others  (as  Munich)  have  radically  altered  it  in  favor  of  a  plan 
which  offers  the  major  part  of  the  continuation  course,  in 
shops  similar  to  those  in  which  the  young  apprentice  is  en- 
gaged. All  of  these  more  modern  schools  are  highly  specialized, 
those  in  Munich  seeing  provision  made  for  the  teaching  of 
over  forty  different  trades,  besides  classes  for  druggists,  gar- 
deners, dentists,  musicians  and  commercial  employees. 

Due  to  the  causes  above  noted,  it  is  now  possible  to  see  in 
the  different  German  cities  schools  of  the  continuation  type 
representative  of  the  stages  which  have  been  passed  from  the 
earlier  form  of  academic  evening  school  to  the  most  advanced 
example  of  a  specialized  day  trade  school.  For  the  same  reason 
one  may  see  the  drawing  in  the  older  schools  of  a  very  limited 
and  academic  nature,  while  in  the  most  modern  institutions 
it  will  be  found  highly  specialized  and  taught  by  teachers 
entirely  familiar  with  the  needs  which  the  apprentice  will  find 
for  the  subject  in  his  special  trade. 

The  degrees  of  differentiation  which  drawing  thus  takes  in 
the  modern  continuation  schools  (and  similarly  in  the  indus- 
trial schools  for  journeymen)  is  characteristic  of  the  system. 
Special  courses  will  be  found  for  locksmiths,  for  carpenters, 
for  carvers,  and  even  for  bakers,  candy  makers  and  gardeners. 
Indeed,  in  the  more  advanced  cities,  one  may  purchase  for  a 
few  cents  books  with  dozens  of  exercises  for  each  of  the  special 
trades  mentioned.  The  drawings  for  each  trade  appear  in  a 
separate  pamphlet,  and  for  the  most  part  are  thoroughly 
practical  in  character.  In  the  schools  themselves,  the  "re- 


INDUSTRIAL  ART  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE     403 

quired  drawing"  forms  only  an  element  of  the  course.  In  some 
trades — barbers,  waiters,  etc. — it  plays  practically  no  part, 
while  in  others — jewelers,  decorators,  etc. — it  is  strongly 
emphasized.  In  all  modern  continuation  schools,  the  purpose ' 
is  to  show  its  value  to  the  workman  as  a  practical  means  of 
sharpening  his  power  of  visualization  and  representation.  It 
is  studied  as  a  practical  tool,  not  as  an  aesthetic  subject. 

One  of  the  most  important  factors  in  the  advance  which 
Germany  has  made  in  the  industrial  arts  within  the  last 
twenty  years  is  to  be  found  in  her  industrial  art  schools.  When 
it  is  remembered  that  all  Germany  is  not  as  large  as  the  state 
of  Texas,  some  impression  of  the  emphasis  placed  upon  higher 
art  education  may  be  gained  from  a  glance  at  the  catalogue 
of  professional  art  schools  issued  by  Carl  Malcomes.  This 
list,  though  not  complete,  gives  an  outline  of  the  organization 
and  courses  of  eighty-four  schools.  Of  those  listed,  nine  are 
under  private  auspices.  Eighteen  are  art  academies  or  schools 
of  painting,  while  twenty-four  are  "fach"  or  professional 
schools,  for  the  training  of  workers  in  special  industries.  Each 
of  the  latter  deals  with  the  education  of  the  artist-artisan  in 
one  subject,  as  ceramics,  wood-carving,  lace  making  and  the 
like.  Their  courses  lay  special  emphasis  on  the  art  training  of 
the  worker,  and  offer,  besides  the  shop  instruction,  classes  in 
drawing  from  nature,  in  modeling,  in  color  and  in  the  special 
design  related  to  the  industry  represented  by  the  school. 
As  institutions,  these  "fach"  schools  vary  in  size  from  the 
Ceramic  School  at  Hohr,  with  half  a  dozen  teachers  and 
some  twenty  students,  to  the  huge  Leipsic  Academy  for  the 
graphic  arts  and  book  making,  with  its  dozens  of  studios  and 
workrooms,  and  many  scores  of  pupils. 

The  art  institutions  still  unmentioned  number  thirty-five. 
These  are  the  "Kunstgewerbe"  or  Industrial  Art  Schools 
which  are  to  be  found  in  all  of  the  more  important  towns. 
Some  are  supported  by  the  state  in  which  they  are  located, 
some  by  city  and  state  together,  while  one  or  two  (like  the 
older  Continuation  Schools)  are  still  on  guild  foundations.  The 
following  is  a  partial  list  of  the  cities  in  which  are  these  im- 


404  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

portant  agents  in  Germany's  campaign  to  reach  world  mar- 
kets by  means  of  the  artistic  excellence  of  her  products: 
Altona,  Barmen,  Berlin,  Charlottenburg,  Bremen,  Breslau, 
Cassel,  Cologne,  Crefeld,  Dessau,  Dresden,  Diisseldorf,  Elber- 
feld,  Erfurt,  Essen,  Frankfurt,  Halle,  Hanau,  Hamburg, 
Hannover,  Karlsruhe,  Leipsic,  Magdeburg,  Mainz,  Munich, 
Nuremberg,  Pforzheim,  Strassburg,  Stuttgart  and  Weimar. 

The  history  of  the  industrial  art  school  may  be  carried  back 
to  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century,  but  it  was  not 
until  the  Industrial  Exposition  held  in  London,  in  1851,  that 
England,  Germany  and  Austria  were  aroused  to  the  necessity 
of  providing  better  industrial  art  training  for  their  artisans. 
The  productions  of  French  art  industries  appeared  in  London 
at  this  time  to  so  much  advantage,  that  it  was  plainly  seen 
that  success  in  fiiture  markets  demanded  as  a  prerequisite, 
serious  training  of  the  workers  in  the  artistic  trades.  All  three 
countries  undertook  the  reorganization  and  strengthening  of 
schools  already  in  existence  and  the  development  of  new 
foundations.  As  an  aid  to  the  study  of  art  forms  and  the 
raising  of  a  national  art,  Germany  also  gave  special  attention 
to  the  establishment  of  industrial  art  museums.  Many  of 
these  still  remain  in  close  association  with  the  art  schools. 

The  purpose  of  the  industrial  art  school  is  primarily  to 
train  a  number  of  art  workers  along  both  general  and  special 
lines,  for  those  trades  that  call  in  any  way  for  a  knowledge  of 
color  and  design.  These  schools  aim  to  give  to  their  students, 
first,  an  all-round  education  in  the  essentials  of  drawing,  color 
and  pattern  making;  and  second,  an  ability  to  apply  this 
knowledge  in  some  specific  way  to  some  one  industry  as, 
sculpture,  metal  working,  ceramics,  printing,  enameling, 
bookbinding  or  the  arts  of  embroidery  and  lace  making.  The 
use  of  the  shop  is  emphasized  that  the  students  may  not  be- 
come mere  draftsmen,  but  that  they  may  come  to  see  how 
far  material  and  process  must  always  be  considered  in  the 
development  of  pattern. 

Besides  the  training  of  the  artist-artisan,  the  industrial  art 
school  generally  serves  two  additional  ends.  It  acts  as  an  art 


INDUSTRIAL  ART  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE    405 

continuation  school  by  offering  evening  and  Sunday  classes 
for  apprentices  and  journeymen,  and  frequently  includes  a 
normal  course  for  the  training  of  art  teachers  for  the  secondary 
schools.  The  evening  classes  seek  to  differentiate  their  work 
to  meet  the  needs  of  workers  in  a  variety  of  different  trades. 

Considerable  differences  in  standards  and  in  organization 
are  to  be  found  in  the  industrial  art  schools  of  different  cities, 
but  the  main  divisions  referred  to  are  nearly  always  to  be 
observed.  The  general  art  training  is  given  through  "fore"  or 
preparatory  courses  which  are  from  two  to  three  years  in 
length,  while  special  professional  or  "fach"  courses  succeed 
these  for  another  two  or  three  years.  It  is  in  the  latter  courses 
that  the  student  applies  his  knowledge  in  the  shop.  Practical 
work  is  the  chief  characteristic  of  the  professional  course. 

The  industrial  art  school  is,  as  a  rule,  housed  in  a  building 
of  good  size,  with  well-lighted  studios  and  ample  storage 
facilities.  So  much  emphasis  is  placed  upon  proper  equipment, 
that  a  number  of  cities  have  lately  rebuilt,  or  are  planning  to 
rebuild,  their  industrial  art-school  buildings,  that  they  may 
take  advantage  of  the  latest  information  in  planning,  lighting 
and  equipment.  Among  the  large  and  costly  schools  recently 
erected  may  be  mentioned  that  at  Pforzheim,  at  Hamburg, 
at  Dortmund  and  Magdeburg.  Stuttgart,  Cologne  and  Hanau 
are  now  planning  new  structures. 

Each  school  is  headed  by  a  director,  and  strong  efforts  are 
made  to  select  for  this  position  a  man  of  noteworthy  excel- 
lence in  some  practical  field  of  art  rather  than  one  of  mere 
organizing  ability.  Bruno  Paul,  whose  work  both  as  a  drafts- 
man and  as  a  designer  of  interiors,  is  known  throughout  Ger- 
many, has  recently  been  called  to  head  the  industrial  art 
school  of  Berlin;  Behrens,  an  architect  of  high  standing,  has 
but  a  year  since  been  drawn  from  the  directorship  of  the 
Diisseldorf  school  (to  serve  as  head  designer  for  the  General 
Electric  Co.  of  Germany)  to  be  succeeded  by  Kries,  another 
architect  of  force  and  ability.  Bosselt,  a  well-known  sculptor, 
has  not  long  since  been  appointed  director  at  Magdeburg; 
Leven,  a  practical  jeweler,  at  Hanau  (a  jewelry  center);  and 


4o6  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

Jochem,  an  architect,  at  Pforzheim.  All  of  these  appointments 
indicate  the  determination  of  the  state  and  school  authorities 
to  secure  young,  vigorous  and  talented  heads  to  carry  on  work 
which  is  regarded  as  of  so  much  importance. 

The  preparatory  courses  see  professors  and  instructors  in 
life  and  still-life  drawing,  modeling  (always  much  emphasized), 
in  painting  from  nature,  the  study  of  ornament,  in  anatomy, 
art  history,  geometrical  drawing  and  in  design.  The  "fach" 
or  professional  courses  have  other  professors  who  teach  the 
special  arts  offered  by  the  school.  These,  as  has  been  indicated, 
cover  a  very  wide  variety  of  subjects,  some  appearing  in  one 
school,  some  in  another.  Among  them  may  be  noted  architec- 
ture (on  the  aesthetic  side — the  technical  being  taught  in  ar- 
chitectural schools),  sculpture,  decorative  painting,  gold  and 
silver  smithing,  ivory  carving,  wood-carving,  ceramics,  batik, 
embroidery,  book-tooling,  book-binding,  lithography,  print- 
ing, etching,  engraving,  glass  working,  etc.  Where  there  is  a 
handworker's  division,  with  evening  and  Sunday  classes,  one 
also  finds  instructors  in  the  usual  continuation-school  subjects 
of  German,mathematics,  study  of  materials,mechanical  draw- 
ing, descriptive  geometry,  etc.  In  these  schools  the  "fach" 
subjects  also  include  the  lesser  art  trades,  with  courses  for 
apprentices  and  journeymen  in  furniture  designing,  locksmith- 
ing,  interior  decoration,  tinsmithing,  turning,  graining,  etc. 

The  salaries  paid  to  the  professors  who  serve  as  instructors 
in  the  professional  departments  are  not  large,  but  allowances 
for  house  rent  increase  these  and  opportunities  for  outside 
practice  are  offered,  and  indeed  encouraged  that  the  work  of 
the  school  may  be  directed  by  men  in  close  touch  with  the 
activities  of  the  art  world.  Women  teachers  appear  only  in 
the  courses  for  women's  work;  i.  e.,  embroidery,  weaving,  etc. 
In  many  cases  the  professor  is  given  a  private  studio  adjoin- 
ing his  classroom  where  he  may  have  an  atelier  with  heat, 
light  and  service,  in  which  to  pursue  his  profession.  The 
amount  of  time  required  in  actual  teaching  is  limited,  while 
the  honor  attaching  to  the  position  is  considerable.  These 
conditions  serve  to  make  the  office  one  of  distinction,  and 


INDUSTRIAL  ART  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE     407 

make  it  possible  to  secure  teachers  of  standing  in  their  respect- 
ive branches.  The  active  competition  between  the  schools 
to  secure  men  of  note  for  their  faculties  also  offers  opportu- 
nities for  advancement  from  the  smaller  schools  to  the  larger, 
and  leads  to  a  continual  shifting  of  instructors  of  ability  from 
one  school  to  another. 

As  the  buildings  occupied  by  the  thirty  or  more  schools 
under  discussion  date  from  various  periods  of  development 
of  the  industrial  art  movement,  the  equipments  will  be  found 
to  vary  much  in  extent  and  in  excellence.  A  brief  description 
of  the  Pforzheim  school,  one  of  the  latest  to  be  erected,  will 
indicate  the  standards  now  sought  in  architecture  and  fur- 
nishings. This  school,  situated  in  a  town  with  several  score 
of  manufactories  all  devoted  to  jewelry,  is  a  five-story 
building  with  a  facade  nearly  two  hundred  feet  in  length  and 
deep  wings  enclosing  an  open  court.  The  latter  is  arranged  as 
a  garden  which  is  planted  with  flowers  and  other  nature 
material  used  in  the  classrooms.  In  the  court  are  a  number  of 
cages  for  birds  and  animals  used  as  live  models,  and  a  pool 
for  ducks  and  other  water  fowl.  Small  greenhouses  are  located 
on  the  several  floors  for  keeping  plants  during  the  winter 
months,  while  a  good-sized  aquarium  furnishes  living  fish, 
newts,  frogs  and  water  plants  for  study.  Besides  the  usual 
offices,  there  is  an  auditorium,  two  large  exhibition  rooms 
where  the  work  of  the  school  is  on  view  in  glass  cases,  a  library 
a  dozen  drawing  rooms,  as  many  more  workshops,  several 
private  studios  for  the  professors,  and  a  large  hall  filled  with 
plaster  casts  of  all  descriptions.  Other  rooms  afford  storage 
facilities  for  the  "lehr-mittel,"  of  materials  for  teaching,  one 
of  the  more  striking  collections  being  an  entire  basement 
chamber  filled  with  racks  on  which  were  stored  dried  grasses, 
seed-pods  and  other  natural  forms  useful  to  the  jewelry  de- 
signer. The  building  is  lighted  with  electricity,  the  indirect 
system  being  used  in  most  of  the  classrooms  which  are  used 
at  night. 

The  classroom  equipment  consists  of  individual  drawing 
tables  in  the  design  rooms,  and  easels  and  revolving  modeling 


4o8  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

stands  in  the  rooms  for  life  drawing  and  for  modeling.  Plasti- 
line  is  employed  for  all  smaller  models  as  it  may  be  used  re- 
peatedly without  drying.  The  shops  are  furnished  with  special 
tables  designed  for  jewelers,  watchmakers  and  engravers, 
with  lathes,  enameling  furnaces,  polishing  wheels,  etc. 
Throughout,  there  is  an  air  of  light  and  spaciousness.  Each 
student  has  abundance  of  room  in  which  to  work  and  the  quiet 
essential  to  the  delicate  operations  of  his  trade.  Not  the  least 
striking  element  of  this  ample  equipment  is  the  permanent 
collection  of  jewelry  shown  in  glass  cases  upon  the  walls  of 
the  several  classrooms.  This  collection  numbers  many  hun- 
dred forms  and  is  illustrative  of  the  work  in  German,  French, 
Austrian  and  English  shops.  Its  value  mounts  into  large 
figures  and  it  is  constantly  being  added  to  through  a  special 
fund  set  aside  for  this  purpose.  It  is  placed  before  the  students 
for  their  continued  study  and  represents  examples  of  many 
of  the  most  famous  jewelry  designers.  The  faculty  numbers 
sixteen,  besides  the  director  and  office  staff.  The  total  number 
of  students,  day  and  evening,  in  1911-12  was  304. 

The  generous  equipment  briefly  described  above  is  not 
peculiar  to  the  Pforzheim  school.  Not  all  schools  to  be  sure, 
can  show  as  large  studios  or  as  handsome  exhibition  halls, 
but  in  practically  all  one  finds  studios  of  good  size,  workshops 
with  all  necessary  tools,  a  library  and  an  ample  collection  of 
illustrative  material  lining  the  halls  and  filling  case  after  case 
in  the  storerooms. This  material  includes  casts,still  life,  weap- 
ons,mounted  insects,  birds  and  animals — from  a  butterfly  and 
a  humming  bird  to  a  mountain  goat — and  in  some  cases  (as 
Nuremberg)  an  extensive  collection  of  costumes.  In  several 
instances  the  school  adjoins  the  industrial  art  museum,  which 
offers  additional  material  for  study,  while  practically  every 
school  possesses  a  large  assembly  hall  in  which  lectures  on 
art  topics  are  given  for  the  benefit  of  the  students  and  the 
general  public. 

The  conditions  of  admission  to  the  day  classes  of  the  indus- 
trial art  schools  require,  as  a  rule,  that  the  candidates  of 
either  sex  be  fifteen  years  of  age  and  that  they  pass  an  entrance 


INDUSTRIAL  ART  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE    409 

examination.  This  examination  consists  of  a  practical  test  in 
drawing  which  varies  much  in  difficulty  in  different  cities.  In 
the  smaller  towns,  it  requires  that  the  applicants  make  some 
simple  outline  drawing  from  the  flat,  while  in  the  larger  cities, 
through  pressure  for  admission,  a  competitive  test  is  neces- 
sary. This  is  strict.  An  examination  of  this  kind  observed  in 
Munich  showed  one  hundred  and  fifty  applicants.  Each  was 
required  to  make  two  drawings,  one  from  an  ornamental  cast 
in  low  relief  and  another  from  a  large  decorated  vase  in 
plaster.  The  latter  required  careful  rendition  of  perspective 
details.  Several  hours  were  allowed  for  the  completion  of 
each  drawing,  the  examination  as  a  whole  lasting  two  full 
days.  It  was  stated  that  seventy-five  applicants  could  be 
admitted  of  the  number  applying,  so  the  school  was  assured 
an  entering  class  already  proficient  in  the  elements  of  free- 
hand representation. 

The  pupils  applying  were  required  to  be  graduates  of  the 
elementary  school,  and  many  of  them  had  had  some  years  of 
secondary  school  training.  They  must  also  have  definitely 
decided  upon  the  choice  of  some  art  trade  as  an  occupation. 
As  a  further  guarantee  of  their  proficiency,  it  is  the  practice 
in  the  larger  schools  to  have  entering  students  serve  a  pro- 
bationary term.  At  the  end  of  this  time,  those  who  do  not  show 
ability  and  industry  are  dropped  from  the  rolls. 

The  classes  of  the  industrial  art  schools  are  never  large. 
From  twenty  to  twenty-five  students  will  at  times  be  found 
in  the  sections  of  the  first  year,  but  higher  up  in  the  school 
the  groups  include  but  half  this  number,  while  it  is  no  unusual 
thing  in  the  "fach"  courses  to  find  but  half  a  dozen  students 
at  work.  Numbers  are  in  no  way  considered  an  important 
element  in  these  schools;  even  the  larger  institutions  rarely 
include  more  than  three  hundred  pupils  in  their  day  sections, 
with  perhaps  as  manymore  in  the  evening  and  Sunday  classes. 

Of  interest  in  this  connection  was  the  reply  of  one  of  the 
directors  when  questioned  in  regard  to  the  numbers  essential 
to  the  maintenance  of  an  advanced  course  in  architecture. 
Said  he,  "We  do  not  look  for  a  number  of  students  in  this 


4IO  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

course.  Those  with  the  ability  to  undertake  this  work  are  few, 
and  even  if  but  one  talented  student  were  to  qualify  for  it,  we 
should  maintain  the  course."  Of  equal  significance  was  the 
statement  of  another  director,  whose  class  of  five  in  mural 
painting  required  the  use  not  of  one,  but  of  several  living 
models  to  carry  out  the  decoration  which  had  been  set  as  a 
problem  for  each.  Said  he,  quoting  the  aphorism  that  no 
omelette  is  made  without  breaking  eggs,  "If  these  young  men 
are  to  be  taught  professional  methods  of  work,  they  must 
have  a  sufficiency  of  models  to  work  from" — an  expensive 
plan  to  maintain,  even  though  model  hire  in  Germany  is 
considerably  less  than  with  us. 

The  fees  vary  much  in  different  schools.  For  local  students 
in  the  smaller  towns  they  range  between  ^4  and  |8  a  year.  In 
the  larger  cities  they  may  rise  to  double  this.  German  students 
from  other  states  are,  as  a  rule,  required  to  pay  more,  while 
foreigners  pay  from  three  to  five  times  the  local  rates.  The 
richer  schools  offer  many  rewards  for  good  work — generally 
small  money  prizes  of  from  $5  to  $20,  while  poor  students  of 
talent  are  awarded  scholarships  which  remit  their  fees  in  part 
or  in  whole,  or  in  cases  of  merit,  take  the  form  of  "stipendia" 
sufficient  to  pay  their  expenses  while  in  attendance  at  the 
school. 

Students  in  attendance  in  the  regular  classes  pursue  a 
course  of  study  in  the  preparatory  years  which  includes  an 
extended  drill  in  all  the  elements  of  drawing  and  design. 
Special  students,  however,  are  admitted  in  most  schools  to 
single  classes  on  the  payment  of  a  special  fee,  while  continu- 
ation pupils  in  the  evening  classes  are  given  latitude  of  choice, 
and  have  the  work  so  far  as  possible  adapted  to  their  needs. 

The  regular  classes  study  drawing  from  the  cast  and  from 
nature.  Much  emphasis  is  put  upon  this  latter  subject.  More 
and  more  the  use  of  the  live  model  is  required  both  in  drawing 
and  in  design.  One  class  was  seen  in  the  Pforzheim  school  in 
which  every  pupil  was  working  from  a  living  model  (fish, 
salamander,  frog,  etc.)  or  from  a  growing  plant.  These  stu- 
dents were  developing  motives  for  jewelry  design. 


INDUSTRIAL  ART  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE    41 1 

Following  the  careful  instmction  in  nature  drawing  there 
are  lessons  in  the  decorative  representation  of  natural  forms. 
These  are  done  in  a  variety  of  media,  it  being  no  uncommon 
sight  to  see  half  a  dozen  students  each  developing  his  drawing 
in  a  different  technique — pencil,  pen  and  ink,  wash  drawing, 
black-and-white,  and  more  elaborate  studies  in  color.  The  use 
of  tempera  (opaque  water-color)  is  common.  Geometrical  draw- 
ing is  taught,  that  the  pupils  may  secure  precision  in  handling 
instruments,  and  thorough  instruction  is  given  in  modeling. 

All  of  the  foregoing  exercises  are  made  to  have  an  impor- 
tant bearing  on  the  teaching  of  design.  Two  elements  charac- 
terize this  instruction:  the  first  being  the  weight  placed  upon 
the  derivation  of  motives  from  natural  forms;  and  the  second 
the  emphasis  on  the  development  of  original  patterns  through 
combinations  of  the  motives  thus  secured.  The  formal  teaching 
of  color  in  scales  and  charts  is  not  seen,  and  the  student,  while 
he  may  study  plates  of  design  in  the  library,  does  not  have 
access  to  these  aids  in  the  classroom.  The  theory  of  design  is 
taught  through  the  practical  development  of  many  patterns 
in  color,  each  student  being  required  to  apply  the  motives 
secured  from  a  single  natural  form  in  a  variety  of  different 
patterns.  This  approach  leads  to  very  interesting  work  in  the 
classrooms.  The  plates  of  exercises  evolved  by  the  different 
students  not  only  show  the  use  of  different  media,  but  fre- 
quently exhibit  a  high  degree  of  originality  in  the  extended 
range  of  patterns. 

It  is  of  interest  to  note  in  this  connection  that  the  recourse 
to  nature  for  suggestions  as  to  color  and  motives  is  maintained 
throughout  the  higher  or  "fach"  courses.  Students  in  these 
advanced  years,  who  are  preparing  designs  to  be  worked  out 
in  any  one  of  a  dozen  different  materials,  are  required  to  seek 
inspiration  in  the  shell,  the  flower,  the  dried  seed-pod,  the 
butterfly  or  beetle,  the  bird,  frog  or  salamander,  the  fish  or 
mottled  snake.  This  constant  turning  back  to  nature  for  sug- 
gestion leads  to  a  freshness  and  vivacity  in  results  which  stand 
in  strong  contrast  to  those  secured  under  older  and  more  form- 
al methods  of  instruction. 


412  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

Any  comparison  of  the  work  done  in  some  of  the  better 
schools  twelve  to  fifteen  years  ago,  with  that  of  today, 
shows  conclusively  the  advantages  which  flow  from  the 
present  methods  of  instruction.  Formerly,  the  study  of  classic 
and  mediaeval  art  made  up  a  large  part  of  the  teaching.  While 
this  study  of  styles  has  not  been  entirely  discontinued,  it  no 
longer  occupies  a  prominent  place  in  the  latter  courses. 
Students  still  receive  lectures  on  historic  ornament  and  are 
sent  to  the  museums  to  study  and  make  drawings  from  the 
work  of  the  older  craftsmen,  but  the  output  of  the  "fach" 
classes  bears  strong  testimony  to  the  fact  that  the  designs 
now  made  are  not  weak  and  formal  adaptations  of  classic 
motives,  but  are  born  of  nature  studied  at  first  hand  from 
living  forms. 

The  industrial  art  museums  are  used  in  a  variety  of  ways, 
part  of  the  work  in  the  preparatory  course  being  done  in  the 
museum  galleries.  Generally,  the  students  are  required  to 
make  notes,  in  the  form  of  outline  drawings  of  pieces  of  furni- 
ture and  other  examples  of  craft  work.  Some  instructors  de- 
mand in  addition  elaborate  studies  in  color  of  textiles,  bronzes, 
enamels,  etc.  In  contradistinction  to  the  latter  practice,  the 
work  of  Director  Bosselt,  of  the  Magdeburg  school,  may  be 
cited.  It  is  given  under  the  head  of  "form"  teaching,  and  re- 
quires the  student  to  visit  the  museum  and  make  a  careful 
study  of  the  historic  styles  of  certain  epochs.  These,  he  is  not 
allowed  to  copy,  but  is  instructed  to  memorize.  He  is  urged 
to  catch  the  essence  of  the  ornament  of  each  period,  and  so  far 
as  possible  to  make  this  a  part  of  himself.  This  information 
he  is  then  required  to  apply  in  the  construction  and  decoration 
of  objects  of  present-day  use,  and  in  this  application  is  en- 
couraged to  preserve  the  spirit  of  the  older  style  while  ignor- 
ing the  letter.  Many  interesting  examples  of  furniture  and 
interior  decoration  are  to  be  seen  in  the  Magdeburg  school  as 
the  result  of  this  teaching. 

Work  in  three  dimensions  in  plastiline  or  clay  is  looked 
upon  as  an  essential  part  of  the  training  of  all  preparatory 
students,  and  where  opportunity  oflFers,  this  teaching  is 


INDUSTRIAL  ART  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE     413 

carried  up  into  the  "fach"  courses.  The  steps  lead  through 
copies  in  the  flat  of  simple  historic  forms,  to  studies  of  details 
of  the  antique,  followed  by  work  from  the  living  model. 
Modeling  is  also  employed  in  the  study  of  design,  and  the 
students,  especially  in  the  higher  classes,  are  led  to  work  out 
many  problems  in  clay  before  attempting  them  in  wood, 
metal,  ivory  or  other  material.  In  this  advanced  work,  na- 
ture is  constantly  turned  to  for  fresh  motives,  it  being  a  com- 
mon sight  to  see  an  advanced  pupil  in  an  architectural,  carving 
or  metal-working  class  developing  details  of  relief  from  a 
plant  stuck  in  a  lump  of  clay  upon  his  easel. 

The  teaching  of  lettering  as  a  separate  subject  is  now  to  be 
found  in  many  of  the  art  schools.  This  is  a  comparatively 
recent  development  and  is  coincident  in  its  rise  with  the 
striking  advance  made  in  all  phases  of  German  typography. 
Various  special  tools  are  employed  for  the  purpose.  Elemen- 
tary exercises  are  first  executed  with  a  rounded  stick  of  wood 
of  the  size  of  a  thin  lead-pencil  and  sharpened  as  a  pencil. 
Simple  alphabets  are  practiced  upon  cross-ruled  paper  and 
then  upon  paper  with  single  ruled  lines.  When  the  student 
has  acquired  freedom  in  this  form  of  lettering,  he  is  given 
exercises  with  a  quill  pen  or  with  a  broad  pen  of  reed.  The 
Roman  alphabet  is  thus  taught  together  with  examples  of 
what  is  known  as  round  writing.  For  larger  work  a  "cork  pen" 
is  used.  This  consists  of  a  wooden  handle  tipped  with  a 
rounded  end  of  cork  which  enables  the  writer  to  draw  large 
letters  with  great  freedom  and  precision.  The  exercises  devel- 
oped with  these  tools  include  different  forms  of  sign  writing, 
headings  for  cards,  envelopes,  letter-heads  and  the  like. 

The  student  of  the  industrial  art  school  is  not  given  system- 
atic instruction  in  out-of-door  sketching,  but  some  directors 
require  considerable  work  in  the  drawing  of  architectural  de- 
tails from  buildings  in  the  town  and  vicinity.  This  work  is 
frequently  carried  by  the  pupils  during  vacation,  when  singly 
or  in  small  groups  they  make  tours  to  neighboring  towns,  or 
at  times  go  with  an  instructor  to  a  distant  city.  In  the  indus- 
trial art  school  at  Budapest,  a  very  extensive  collection  of 


414  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

work  was  observed  which  represented  the  studies  of  peasant 
art  made  by  pupils  during  the  summer  holiday.  It  may  be 
noted  that  this  effort  to  familiarize  the  student  with  what  is 
termed  "the  art  of  the  people,"  characterizes  the  workof  many 
of  the  leading  schools.  With  the  development  of  the  cheaper 
forms  of  commercial  reproduction  in  textiles,  furniture  and 
household  utensils,  this  art  of  the  people  has  suffered  severely. 
Less  and  less  does  the  peasant  seek  to  use  the  forms  of 
decoration  that  have  come  down  through  many  generations. 
Machine-made  articles  are,  in  Germany  and  Austria,  as  else- 
where, fast  supplanting  the  older  hand-wrought  forms.  The 
latter  see  their  quaint  and  charming  effects  of  line  and  color 
replaced  by  the  far  less  interesting  and  characteristic  products 
of  the  factory.  It  is  to  retain  the  spirit  of  the  older  art  and  thus 
to  keep  it  alive,  that  wise  teachers  lead  their  students  to 
study  it  at  first  hand. 

In  the  observations  on  secondary  schools,  it  was  noted  that 
pupils  passing  the  examination  which  admits  them  into  the 
seventh  year  of  the  gymnasium  acquire  the  privilege  of  serv- 
ing but  one  year  in  the  army.  This  valued  permission  is  also 
accorded  to  pupils  of  the  "fach"  and  "drawing  teacher" 
courses  in  the  industrial  art  schools,  after  the  passage  of  an 
examination  given  at  the  conclusion  of  each  course.  It  acts, 
as  in  the  secondary  schools,  to  stimulate  the  students  to 
diligent  effort  while  at  the  same  time  it  makes  it  possible  for 
the  art  school  to  secure  as  attendants  those  who  might,  with- 
out this  right,  be  deterred  from  undertaking  an  industrial 
art  career. 

As  has  already  been  noted,  the  peculiarity  of  the  "fach" 
course  is  its  shop  practice.  As  many  as  seven  or  eight  of  these 
courses  are  at  times  offered  in  an  industrial  art  school,  but 
the  particular  subjects  taught  vary  widely  in  the  different 
centers.  Those  most  commonly  found  are  architecture,  sculp- 
ture, gold  and  silver  smithing,  decorative  painting  and  general 
design.  Others  noted  in  different  schools  include  ceramics, 
metal  work,  glass  painting,  printing,  lithography,  jewelry, 
wood-carving,  bookbinding,  photography,  embroidery,  in- 


INDUSTRIAL  ART  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE    415 

terior  decoration,  etc.  The  tendency  of  the  industrial  art 
school  is  toward  the  "fach"  school,  which  is,  as  already 
noted,  a  professional  school  laying  its  emphasis  largely  upon 
one  subject.  Special  schools  of  this  description  are  to  be  found 
in  all  parts  of  Germany  where  local  industries  have  a  strong 
foothold,  as  in  Hohr  (pottery),  Lichtenfels  (basket  weaving), 
Schoensee  (lace  making),  Miinchberg  (weaving),  Oberammer- 
gau  (carving)  and  Solingen  (steel  working) . 

While  the  tendency  of  the  general  industrial  art  school  is 
thus  to  specialize,  it  is  to  be  noted  that  there  are  many  advo- 
cates of  the  present  system  who  urge  strongly  the  advantages 
of  a  general  art  training  and  deprecate  efforts  to  markedly 
specialize  all  schools.  These  teachers  concede  the  advantage  of 
the  special  school  in  the  town  with  a  local  industry,  but  insist 
that  the  larger  cities  shall  develop  their  "fach"  courses  along 
present  lines.  They  look  to  see  the  industrial  art  school  pre- 
pare the  students  in  preparatory  courses  for  any  art  trade, 
while  offering  in  the  "fach"  courses  opportunities  for  study 
in  the  chief  art  industries  represented  in  the  town. 

To  the  American  visitor  the  two  most  striking  aspects  of 
the  "fach"  class  appear  in  the  limited  number  of  pupils  and 
in  the  high  technical  standards  of  the  work.  In  these  classes 
it  is  unusual  to  find  more  than  a  half-dozen  students,  each  one 
busy  over  a  constructive  exercise  which  may  demand  for  its 
completion  weeks  and  even  months.  The  term  "months"  is 
not  an  overstatement,  the  writer  having  seen  more  than  one 
project  in  a  metal-working  class  which,  with  its  forging,  weld- 
ing, shaping,  raising,  chasing  and  damascening,  has  taken 
its  maker  a  full  school  term  to  execute.  The  question  as  to  the 
disposition  of  the  objects  made  in  the  "fach"  courses  is  an- 
swered as  in  the  case  of  forms  made  by  journeymen  in  the  eve- 
ning industrial  classes.  The  objects  made  are  the  property  of 
the  school,  but  the  student,  as  a  rule,  may  acquire  any  par- 
ticular piece  of  work  by  paying  for  the  material.  The  schools 
retain  choice  examples  of  work  for  exhibition  purposes,  but 
nothing  is  sold  to  the  trade. 

It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  state  that  the  instruction  in  all 


4i6  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

the  professional  courses  is  individual  and  that  there  is  no 
"course  of  study."  The  different  technical  procedures  are 
taken  up  in  a  series  of  problems  dependent  in  many  cases  on 
the  personal  predelictions  of  the  students.  This  leads  to  much 
diversity  in  work,  and  any  group  of  students  will  be  found 
occupied  in  a  wide  variety  of  operations.  The  insistence  upon 
the  continued  study  of  nature  has  been  noted.  This  leads  to 
phases  of  work  of  peculiar  interest  to  the  American  visitor.  In 
a  ceramic  class,  a  student  will  be  observed  modeling  from  a 
live  rabbit  which  he  induces  to  "hold  the  pose,"  by  feeding  it 
with  shreds  of  carrot.  A  goldsmith  intent  upon  an  enameling 
project  will  be  seen  studying  in  color  a  spotted  lizard  confined 
in  a  small  aquarium,  a  jeweler  will  be  seeking  similar  inspi- 
ration from  the  iridescent  wings  of  four  or  five  butterflies, 
while  a  carver  is  feeding  with  cracked  corn  a  beautifully 
plumed  cockerel,  as  he  makes  from  the  bird  his  preliminary 
sketch  in  clay. 

To  witness  this  constant  recourse  to  nature  on  the  part  of 
these  talented  young  craftsmen,  is  to  learn  the  secret  of  that 
striking  advance  in  German  design  which  is  so  plainly  evident 
in  every  international  exhibition  of  art-craft  work.  The  work 
of  these  "fach"  courses  has  been  stamped  indelibly  on  the 
products  of  scores  of  German  factories  whose  designers  have 
been  trained  in  the  industrial  art  schools.  It  is  to  these  big 
and  quiet  studios,  with  their  little  groups  of  workers,  that 
Germany  looks  for  those  who  are  to  gain  for  her  a  foremost 
place  wherever  artistic  products  are  sold.  It  is  to  these  schools 
also  that  the  American  economist  and  manufacturer  must 
look,  if  they  would  learn  one  of  the  secrets  of  Germany's 
advance  in  the  race  for  commercial  supremacy. 

Besides  the  regular  classes  for  art  workers  in  the  industrial 
art  schools,  two  other  classes  are  occasionally  found;  one  of 
these,  observed  in  the  art  school  of  Budapest,  offered  a  course 
in  general  art  training  which  was  open  to  amateurs  who 
desired  to  secure  instruction  in  applied  design.  The  students 
mostly  women,  were  given  practice  in  drawing,  in  color  and 
instruction  in  practical  design  of  use  in  a  variety  of  feminine 


INDUSTRIAL  ART  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE     417 

occupations.  This  course  offers  excellent  suggestion  as  to 
work  of  similar  description  which  might  be  organized  in  a  day 
or  evening  art  school  in  our  own  city.  With  careful  consider- 
ation of  the  needs  of  commercial  workers,  it  could  be  made  to 
present  most  valuable  training  to  women  employees  of  mil- 
linery and  dressmaking  establishments,  and  to  that  much 
larger  group  of  department-store  workers,  whose  occupation 
brings  them  into  continued  touch  with  questions  involving 
color  choice  and  harmony. 

Several  of  the  industrial  art  schools  also  offer  classes  for 
public-school  children.  These  are  held  once  or  twice  during 
the  week  in  the  afternoon  and  give  instruction,  largely  per- 
sonal, in  drawing,  in  design  and  simpler  forms  of  handwork. 
Considerable  emphasis  is  placed  on  work  in  paper  pasting. 
This  has  risen  largely  from  the  example  offered  by  some  re- 
markable work  done  by  Professor  Franz  Cizek  of  the  Imperial 
Industrial  Art  School  of  Vienna.  The  colored  paper,  furnished 
in  gummed  sheets,  is  cut  by  the  children  into  a  great  variety 
of  patterns  and  used  for  making  designs,  landscapes,  posters, 
etc.  The  success  of  this  eminent  teacher  has  not  only  led  to 
the  widespread  use  of  the  "klebpapier"  in  elementary  schools, 
but  has  also  promoted  the  use  of  similar  material  in  the  indus- 
trial art  schools  where  it  is  found  of  value  in  the  teaching  of 
color  harmony  and  in  the  training  of  students  in  the  simplifi- 
cation of  details  and  the  use  of  large  flat  masses  of  tone.  As  in 
the  case  of  the  classes  for  amateurs,  these  optional  children's 
courses  offer  a  valuable  suggestion  for  work  of  this  descrip- 
tion which  might  be  developed  with  talented  pupils  of  our 
own  high-schools. 

In  many  of  the  industrial  art  schools  one  finds  classes  for 
drawing  teachers.  The  conditions  of  eligibility  vary  in  differ- 
ent states,  the  minimum  requirements  demanding  that  pupils 
be  at  least  sixteen  years  of  age  and  graduates  of  the  "higher 
girls'  schools"  (Bavaria),  or  in  the  case  of  boys,  of  the  equiva- 
lent classes  of  the  gymnasium.  The  tendency,  however,  is  to 
raise  these  conditions,  and  after  1914,  in  the  state  noted, 
pupils  must  offer  nine  years  of  the  gymnasium.  They  must 


4i8  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

then  study  art  for  four  years,  two  years  of  which  must  be  in 
an  industrial  art  school.  Each  principality  offers  its  own  state 
examination  for  art  teachers,  who,  as  previously  noted,  are 
employed  almost  exclusively  in  secondary  schools.  Teachers 
for  the  elementary  grades  in  all  the  better  normal  schools 
receive  excellent  drill  in  drawing,  and  some  instruction  in 
methods  of  teaching  this  subject.  A  separate  Normal  Art 
School  is  situated  in  Diisseldorf.  This  requires  for  admission 
graduation  from  a  ten-year  "middle  school"  course  for  girls, 
or  the  completion  of  the  seventh-year  gymnasium  course  for 
boys.  It  gives  two  years  of  art  training  confined  chiefly  to 
drawing  and  painting. 

The  courses  for  art  teachers  universally  lay  their  emphasis 
on  technique.  Drawing  and  painting  in  a  variety  of  media  is 
taught  with  great  thoroughness.  A  few  lectures  on  art  history 
are  generally  offered  and  others  on  the  study  of  historic  orna- 
ment. Women  students  must  also  pursue  a  course  in  artistic 
handiwork,  for  as  teachers  in  the  "middle  schools"  or  "higher 
girls'  schools"  they  are  called  upon  to  give  instruction  in  sew- 
ing, weaving,  embroidery  and  the  allied  arts. 

Practice  teaching  is  also  required.  This  is  generally  done  in 
the  elementary  schools  of  the  town,  the  students  of  the  last 
year  of  the  art  course  working  in  small  groups  under  the 
direction  of  the  professor  of  pedagogy.  Each  practice  lesson 
is  generally  followed  by  a  seminar  which  takes  the  form  of 
group  discussion  of  the  points  developed  by  the  pupil  teacher, 
and  of  the  shortcomings  noted  by  the  critic.  Lectures  on  peda- 
gogy are  also  given  in  the  art  school,  but  the  subject  of 
"methods  of  teaching"  receives,  as  a  rule,  much  less  attention 
in  these  schools  than  the  American  visitor  might  be  led  to 
expect.  The  ideals  of  the  schools  are  distinctly  studio  ideals 
and  the  artist  teachers  look  with  scant  favor  upon  "methods 
of  teaching."  Their  own  teaching  is  individual  and  they  seek 
to  train  their  pupils  to  pursue  a  similar  practice  in  the  class- 
room. This  arises  in  part  from  the  lack  of  relationship  between 
the  different  types  of  schools  throughout  the  empire,  and  in 
part,  apparently,  from  a  tendency  of  the  German  mind  to 


INDUSTRIAL  ART  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE    419 

reduce  suggestions  touching  lesson  development  to  formal 
and  didactic  steps.  The  latter,  the  art  teacher  has  learned  to 
fear,  regarding  them  as  sure  to  destroy  all  individuality  on 
the  part  of  the  pupil  in  the  grades.  Hence,  the  answer  of 
teachers  in  normal  art  schools  when  questioned  in  regard  to 
"method  work" — "Yes,  we  teach  methods,  a  little,  but  the 
less  the  better;  one  must  learn  his  methods  in  the  classroom." 
Unfortunately,  all  pupil  teachers  are  not  so  gifted  that 
they  can  learn  of  their  own  instance  the  difficult  art  of  carry- 
ing forward  large  groups  of  pupils  through  exercises  which 
require  as  much  in  the  way  of  mental  development  as  of 
manual  skill.  For  these  reasons,  the  American  visitor  in  the 
German  normal  art  school,  or  in  the  related  classes  in  the 
industrial  art  school,  must  look  for  suggestions,  to  the  admir- 
able training  given  in  drawing,  to  the  excellent  drill  in  black- 
board representation  and  to  the  extensive  knowledge  of  a 
variety  of  techniques,  rather  than  to  instruction  given  touch- 
ing the  child's  attitude  toward  art,  his  aesthetic  interests  at 
different  periods  of  his  development,  the  steps  to  be  taken  to 
cause  him  to  reason  about  his  drawing,  to  think  a  way  through 
technical  difficulties  or  to  criticize  in  intelligent  fashion  his 
own  work  or  that  of  his  neighbors. 


INDUSTRIAL  ART  SCHOOLS  IN  AUSTRIA 
AND  HUNGARY* 

Professor  Gyula  Mihalik 

In  Austria  and  Hungary  drawing  is  considered  the  princi- 
pal preparatory  study  for  industry  and  art  and  is  therefore 
included  in  the  curriculum  of  every  school  giving  a  general 
education. 

The  child  enters  the  primary  school  at  six  years  of  age  and 
remains  six  years.  During  the  first  two  years  one  hour  a  week 
is  devoted  to  drawing,  and  during  the  remaining  four  years 
two  hours  a  week.  The  purpose  of  the  instruction  in  drawing 
is  to  cultivate  observation,  memory  and  manual  dexterity. 

The  drawing  is  at  first  done  from  flat  objects  and  later 
from  plaster  casts.  Elementary  designing  is  taught  in  con- 
nection with  brushwork,  and  ornamental  work  for  girls  co- 
ordinated with  their  needlework.  In  the  larger  cities  the  boys 
model  in  clay  and  execute  manual  work  in  paper  and  wood. 

The  intermediate  school  is  of  six  years  duration  and  over- 
laps the  primary  school  in  that  a  pupil  may  enter  upon  the 
completion  of  four  years  in  the  primary  school.  These  two 
schools  comprise  a  complete  public-school  education,  and 
graduation  from  the  intermediateschool qualifies  for  admission 
into  the  trainingschools  for  teachers  and  technical  schools.  The 
purposeof  drawing  in  the  intermediateschool  is  to  teach  correct 
observation  of  forms  and  colors,  to  draw  correctly  simple  obj  ects 
thus  observed,  and  to  cultivate  an  artistic  sense  by  contact 
with  good  art  examples.  During  the  first  three  years  three 
hours  a  week  are  devoted  to  drawing  and  two  hours  a  week 
during  the  remaining  three  years.  The  instruction  is  similar 
to  that  of  the  primary  school  except  that  the  work  is  of  a 
more  difficult  character.  Enough  ornamental  drawing  is 
given  to  compose  simple  designs  and  sufficient  instrumental 
drafting  to  make  a  ground  plan,  elevation  and  projection. 
The  elements  of  lettering  are  also  taught. 

♦This  article  was  written  in  1921  but  is  descriptive  of  conditions  obtaining  in  Austria- 
Hungary  before  the^World  War. 


INDUSTRIAL  ART  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE     421 

During  the  first  decade  of  this  century  the  then  existing 
plans  for  drawing  instruction  were  altered  to  more  nearly 
conform  with  American  practice  as  outlined  in  the  textbooks 
of  leading  American  publishers. 

There  is  a  marked  difference  between  the  training  and 
ability  of  the  teacher  of  drawing  in  the  primary  school  and 
the  teacher  in  the  intermediate  school,  due  to  the  fact  that 
the  primary  teacher  gives  instruction  in  every  class  subject 
whereas  the  intermediate  teacher  is  specially  trained  in  a  few 
related  subjects,  the  drawing  teacher  usually  being  a  specialist. 

The  secondary  schools  are  of  two  types — the  gymnasium 
or  classical  school  and  the  "Realschule"  or  modern  school. 
The  first  prepares  for  admission  to  the  university  and  the 
latter  for  admission  to  the  higher  technical  schools.  A  pupil 
may  be  admitted  upon  the  completion  of  four  years  of  the 
primary  school.  The  course  is  of  eight  years'  duration.  In 
Hungary  two  hours  per  week  are  devoted  to  drawing  during 
the  last  six  years  in  the  Realschule.  The  work  at  first  con- 
sists of  ornamental  drawing  and  coloring  from  copies  and 
plaster  casts.  In  the  last  four  years  groups  of  models  and 
simple  objects  are  drawn  and  also  natural  and  figural  details 
from  copies.  Sufficient  mechanical  drafting  is  taught,  in  con- 
junction with  geometry,  to  give  a  good  basis  for  industrial 
education. 

The  distinction  between  the  drawing  instruction  in  the 
primary  and  secondary  schools  is  that  in  the  former  the 
stress  is  laid  upon  the  development  of  the  imagination  and 
the  memory,  whereas  in  the  latter  the  emphasis  is  upon  the 
training  of  manual  skill  and  observation.  The  instruction 
received  in  the  above  schools  furnishes  the  elementary  artistic 
principles  of  industrial  art  which  serve  as  a  foundation  for 
the  art  work  in  special  and  higher  schools. 

In  both  Austria  and  Hungary  there  are  various  types  of 
industrial  schools  giving  theoretical  and  practical  instruction 
in  industrial  art.  They  are  supported  by  the  state  and  are 
under  its  supervision.  In  Austria  this  supervision  is  by  the 
Ministry  of  Public  Labor,  and  in  Hungary  partly  under  the 


422  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

Ministry  of  Public  Worship  and  Education  and  partly  under 
the  Ministry  of  Commerce. 

The  Ministry  of  Commerce  is  assisted  by  an  advisory 
committee  in  the  conduct  of  industrial  schools.  This  com- 
mittee is  composed  of  representatives  of  industrial  schools 
and  men  from  the  industries  whose  practical  experience  is  of 
value  in  dealing  with  the  problems  confronting  the  committee. 

Continuation  schools  are  provided  for  young  workers,  at 
which  instruction  is  given  evenings  and  Sunday  mornings. 
The  term  is  usually  of  two  years'  duration,  the  first  of  which 
is  devoted  to  instruction  of  a  general  educational  character, 
and  the  second  to  instrumental  and  free-hand  drawing.  The 
instructors  in  these  schools  are  primary  teachers  and  artisans 
who  make  up  any  deficiency  of  their  equipment  by  attending 
special  courses  in  technical  schools  for  two  or  three  months. 

In  schools  for  workers  drawing  is  taught  three  and  four 
hours  a  week. 

In  training  schools  for  special  branches  of  trade ^  which  are 
provided  with  workshops,  boys  and  girls  are  given  theoretical 
and  practical  instruction  in  trades.  These  schools  are  gener- 
ally associated  with  the  continuation  schools.  Pupils  may 
enter  as  young  as  twelve  years  of  age  if  they  have  completed 
their  public-school  education  to  that  period.  Free-hand  and 
mechanical  drawing  is  taught  for  from  four  to  fourteen  hours 
per  week,  according  to  the  trade  training  being  pursued.  The 
training  courses  for  primary  teachers  proposing  to  teach 
drawing  are  given  in  these  schools,  as  well  as  special  drawing 
courses  for  artisans. 

The  training  schools  for  women  are  comprehended  under  the 
above  heading.  The  course  extends  for  two  years,  may  be 
entered  at  fourteen  years  of  age,  and  consists  of  three  branches 
— linen  work,  embroidery  and  dressmaking.  The  largest  of 
these  schools  are  in  Budapest  and  Vienna,  and  through 
special  courses  train  teachers  of  needlework  for  the  public 
schools.  Two  hours  a  week  in  drawing  is  required  in  all  of 
these  schools. 

There  are  numerous  industrial  courses  for  craftsmen  and 


INDUSTRIAL  ART  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE    423 

artisans  provided  by  these  schools  and  the  industrial  museums 
These  courses  range  in  duration  from  two  weeks  to  five 
months.  In  Hungary,  in  191 2,  there  were  369  such  courses 
with  an  enrollment  of  14,200,  a  large  proportion  being  for 
professional  drawing.  These  courses  serve  to  extend  a  knowl- 
edge of  new  technical  methods,  improve  drawing  ability,  re- 
fine artisanship,  and  train  teachers  and  workmasters  for  the 
schools.  To  extend  training  in  industrial  art  for  all  interested, 
from  the  artisan  to  the  staff  of  the  professional  schools,  there 
are  provided  libraries,  exhibitions  and  peripatetic  collections 
of  books,  and  of  machines  and  apparatus. 

A  special  industrial  drawing  school  in  Budapest,  supported 
by  the  municipality,  provides  courses  in  drawing  for  crafts- 
men, for  prospective  workmasters,  and  courses  in  drawing 
and  modeling  for  primary-school  teachers  and  for  pupils  of 
the  primary  and  secondary  schools. 

The  School  for  Artistic  Embroidery  trains  the  majority  of 
teachers  of  embroidery.  There  is  a  preparatory  year  and  three 
regular  years.  Girls  are  admitted  upon  completion  of  the  work 
of  the  primary  school.  Those  completing  the  course  may 
elect  two  additional  years  for  the  practice  of  embroidery  and 
designing. 

The  Central  School  for  Lace  Making,  connected  with  the 
Industrial  Art  School  gives  ten  months  instruction,  and 
trains  lace-making  teachers.  This  school  directs  sixty  schools 
in  different  parts  of  the  empire  in  which  in  19 13  the  enroll- 
ment was  4,097,  and  also  provides  the  bobbin-lace  schools 
with  models. 

The  School  for  Basket  Making  trains  teachers  and  workers, 
and  provides  models  and  advisory  supervision  to  thirty-eight 
schools  throughout  the  country,  with  an  enrollment  of  2,033 
pupils  in  1 913. 

The  Graphic  Institute  provides  instruction  in  photography, 
reproduction  and  graphic  printing  as  employed  in  industry 
and  art.  Six  hundred  pupils  are  enrolled. 

A  large  part  in  industrial  art  education  is  played  by  the 
industrial  art  museums  of  Budapest  and  Vienna.  They  con- 


424  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

tain  extensive  collections  of  excellent  examples  of  every 
branch  of  industrial  art,  and  also  libraries.  Frequent  special 
exhibitions  are  provided,  and  the  officers  and  other  profes- 
sional men  give  lectures  for  the  public  in  general,  but  more 
especially  for  craftsmen. 

The  industrial  art  schools  of  former  Austria-Hungary, 
namely,  the  three  schools  in  Vienna,  Budapest,  and  Prague, 
had  an  importance  that  is  not  to  be  underrated  in  the  cultural, 
the  industrial,  and  the  economic  field  generally.  The  demands 
that  were  met  by  these  schools  differ  according  to  the  field  to 
which  their  spheres  of  activity  extended. 

Vienna,  the  permanent  place  of  residence  of  the  ruler  of 
the  monarchy,  was  always  the  center  of  lively  cultural  and 
economic  activity.  The  artistic  taste  that  was  a  potent  factor 
in  every  field  of  social  life  was  known  and  valued  all  over  the 
continent. 

In  this  setting  the  Vienna  Industrial  Art  School  had  an 
exceptionally  broad  field  of  activity,  and  exerted  a  far-reach- 
ing influence  on  the  development  of  industrial  art  production. 
It  had  become  the  object  of  this  school  to  secure  for  itself  the 
leading  role  in  the  continuous  transformation  of  artistic  taste. 

This  influence  extended  not  merely  to  Vienna  itself;  for, 
thanks  to  the  promotion  of  its  interests  on  the  part  of  the 
proper  authorities,  the  refining  influence  of  this  school  is 
traceable  in  industrial  instruction,  in  manufacturing,  in 
industry,  as  well  as  in  domestic  manufacturing  in  former 
Austria.  It  is  primarily  to  be  credited  to  the  endeavors  of 
the  professors  and  consequently  to  the  school,  that  the  con- 
viction could  take  root  in  the  minds  of  many  manufacturers 
and  tradespeople  that  the  artistic  quality  of  certain  kinds 
of  goods  materially  increases  their  value  and  enlarges  their 
market. 

The  importance  of  the  Vienna  school  did  not,  however,  re- 
main confined  merely  to  the  boundaries  of  its  own  country. 
It  must  be  emphasized  that  artists  turned  out  by  this  school 
have  attained  noteworthy  successes  in  other  countries,partic- 
ularly  in  Germany. 


INDUSTRIAL  ART  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE    425 

The  importance  of  the  Hungarian  National  Industrial  Art 
School  in  Budapest  lies  in  another  field.  Conditions  in  Hun- 
gary were  very  different  from  those  in  Austria,  Here  there 
was  no  highly  developed  manufacturing  industry,  which  is 
called  upon  to  work  hand  in  hand  with  artists;  there  was  also 
no  pronounced  direction  of  artistic  taste  that  could  have 
asserted  itself  in  international  competition;  there  was,  how- 
ever, an  economic  unit  circumscribed  by  the  geographical 
boundaries,  as  well  as  a  national  art,  which  had  developed 
to  a  highly  flourishing  state  in  consequence  of  the  association 
for  a  thousand  years  of  populations  differing,  to  be  sure,  in 
language,  but  otherwise  dependent  on  one  another. 

This  national  artistic  treasure  was  utilized  as  the  basis  of 
industrial  art  education,  and  it  was  the  aim  of  the  Industrial 
Art  School  in  Budapest  to  continue  to  build  on  this  foundation 
and  to  create  an  industrial  art  which  should  differ  from  that 
of  other  countries  and  should  show  traits  of  national  origi- 
nality. 

The  next  task  was  to  foster  appreciation  of  home  products, 
and,  in  default  of  manufacturing,  to  provide  an  opportunity 
for  many  persons  to  enter  into  the  field  of  independent  pro- 
duction in  industrial  art.  Various  courses  of  the  Industrial 
Art  School,  which  had  as  their  aim  the  development  of  a  fine 
amateurship  and  the  training  of  suitable  assistants  for  smaller 
workshops,  had  the  consequence  that  interest,  inclination  to 
purchase,  and  the  general  artistic  taste  reached  a  higher  level. 

The  purpose  and  importance  of  the  Industrial  Art  School 
of  Prague  were  determined  by  the  industrial  activity  which 
occupies  the  preponderant  majority  of  the  inhabitants  of 
Bohemia.  This  school,  which  was  founded  especially  for  the 
purpose  of  becoming  a  support  of  native  industry,  keeps  the 
aims  and  means  of  industrial  practice  in  view  in  its  entire 
plan  of  instruction.  Technical  ability  is  an  indispensable 
prerequisite  for  admission  to  most  of  the  technical  classes, 
so  that  graduates  upon  leaving  the  school  are  capable  of 
being  placed  as  thoroughly  competent  workers  in  industrial 
enterprises. 


426  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

THE  ROYAL  INDUSTRIAL  ART  SCHOOL 

OF  VIENNA 

The  Royal  Industrial  Art  School  of  Vienna  was  founded  in 
1868  to  educate  designers  in  the  applied  arts,  to  afford  oppor- 
tunity to  artists  and  craftsmen  to  execute  practical  art  work 
and  to  elevate  and  broaden  public  artistic  taste.  The  school 
is  supported  by  the  government  and  is  under  the  control  of 
the  Ministry  of  Public  Labor.  It  is  housed  in  the  Industrial 
Art  Museum.  The  director  is  a  governmental  appointee.  There 
is  a  board  of  visitors  composed  of  artists  and  representative 
men  of  industry,  the  chamber  of  commerce,  and  the  govern- 
ment, of  which  board  the  director  of  the  Industrial  Art 
Museum  is  chairman.  The  duties  of  this  board  are  those  of  a 
board  of  directors.  The  school  is  well  equipped  with  all  neces- 
sary appurtenances,  with  the  addition  of  having  at  the  im- 
mediate disposal  of  the  students  the  large  collections  of  the 
museum. 

The  term  extends  from  October  ist  to  July  ist.  The  fee  is 
sixty  crowns  for  each  half  year,  and  five  times  that  amount 
to  foreigners. 

The  courses  consist  of  a  three-year  general  course ^  profes- 
sional courses  in  architecture,  painting,  and  sculpture  of  from 
two  to  four  years  duration,  and  special  courses  in  drawing 
from  life,  drawing  for  young  people,  in  French  and  English, 
designing,  study  of  ornament  and  lettering.  The  attendants 
in  the  special  courses  are  not  classed  as  regular  students  of 
the  school  and  are  required  to  purchase  weekly  cards  for 
which  they  pay  one  crown  per  week. 

The  general  course  receives  boys  and  girls  over  thirteen 
years  of  age  who  have  completed  four  years  in  the  secondary 
schools  or  have  an  equivalent  education  and  pass  an  entrance 
examination.  The  maximum  age  for  entrance  is  twenty-four 
years. 

The  entrance  requirements  for  the  professional  courses  are 
the  same  as  for  the  general  courses,  but  the  age  limits  are 
seventeen  and  twenty-six  years,  and  the  applicant  must  also 


INDUSTRIAL  ART  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE    427 

give  evidence  of  a  general  artistic  education  and  promise  of 
special  fitness.  The  professional  courses  have  special  work- 
shops for  metal  work,  enameling,  ceramics  and  textiles,  from 
which  special  students  are  debarred.  A  chemical  laboratory 
is  provided  and  its  services  are  at  the  disposal  of  industry  for 
practical  advice. 

In  1 913  the  enrollment  at  the  end  of  the  year  was  223j 
distributed  as  follows '.General  course  51,  Architecture  course 
27,  Sculpture  course  25,  Painting  course  21,  Workshop  for 
Metal  Work  5,  Workshop  for  Enameling  12,  Workshop  for 
Ceramics  5,  Workshop  for  Textiles  16,  special  courses  71. 

Of  this  number  a  little  less  than  one-half  were  women. 

The  subjects  of  instruction  in  the  general  courses  are: 

First  year:  Form  studies — Ornamental  drawing  and  com 
position,  lettering  and  heraldry;  technical  drawing  (projec- 
tive and  perspective  geometry),  composing,  mathematics, 
bookkeeping. 

Second  year:  Nature  study — Chemistry,  history  of  styles. 

Third  year:  Drawing  of  the  Human  figure  —  Anatomy 
(drawing  and  modeling),  history  of  art,  special  study  in  the 
morning  and  evening  in  the  classrooms  for  drawing  the 
living  model. 

The  student  is  taught  ornamental  and  architectural  styles 
by  making  sketches  from  drawings  of  ornaments  and  from 
prints  of  the  various  Greek  and  Roman  architectural  styles. 
They  are  required  to  memorize  the  principal  styles.  Plaster 
cast  models  are  also  made  use  of.  Lettering  is  taught  in  con- 
junction with  the  above  and  also  the  laws  of  composition  and 
form.  In  nature  study  use  is  made  of  flowers,  plants,  butter- 
flies, etc.  The  use  of  pencil,  brush,  pen-and-ink,  water-colors, 
and  the  different  methods  of  drawing  are  taught.  This  work 
is  preparatory  to  drawing  from  the  nude  in  charcoal  and 
chalk.  Anatomy  is  taught  by  drawing  and  modeling  the  prin- 
cipal parts  of  the  human  body,  first  from  plaster  casts,  then 
from  the  living  model  and  finally  from  memory. 

Instruction  in  the  professional  courses  is  not  based  upon  a 
rigid  syllabus.  There  are  many  commercial  orders  to  be 


428  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

executed,  which  are  done  under  the  supervision  of  the  teacher. 
Suggestions  on  paper  are  given  the  student  to  be  carried  out, 
and  work  is  also  directly  executed  in  the  material  without 
preceding  design. 

The  teachers  are  closely  in  touch  with  industry,  as  a  large 
part  of  their  time  is  given  to  commercial  pursuits.  The  con- 
ditions existing  in  Austria,  particularly  in  Vienna,  give  oppor- 
tunity to  the  school  and  its  teachers  for  plenty  of  commercial 
work.  There  are  also  numerous  societies,  limited  companies, 
and  private  workshops  with  which  the  school  staff  is  associ- 
ated, thus  affording  the  closest  connection  between  the  school 
and  industry. 

The  work  of  the  school  is  displayed  in  public  exhibitions 
at  which  the  specimens  may  be  purchased  or  orders  placed. 
Industry  is  much  interested  in  these  exhibitions  and  is  af- 
forded opportunity  for  obtaining  trained  designers,  an  oppor- 
tunity generally  availed  of. 

In  addition  to  the  Industrial  Art  School  and  Museum, 
Vienna  has  a  Graphic  Arts  School  with  work  in  book  illustra- 
tion, reproduction  and  special  technical  courses;  the  Central 
School  and  Seminary  for  T'rades  for  Women  with  Courses  in 
needlework,  embroidery,  dressmaking,  and  the  training  of 
school-teachers;  the  Institution  for  Home  Industry  for  Women 
with  courses  in  various  home  industries  and  for  the  training 
of  teachers;  and  the  School  and  Experimental  Institute  for 
Basket  Working.  These  schools  obtain  much  of  their  art 
direction  through  the  Industrial  Art  School. 

THE  ROYAL  HUNGARIAN  INDUSTRIAL 
ART  SCHOOL  OF  BUDAPEST 

The  Royal  Hungarian  Industrial  Art  School  of  Budapest, 
founded  in  1879  ^'^^  supported  by  the  government,  aims  to 
train  designers  and  craftsmen  in  the  industrial  arts.  It  shares 
a  building  with  the  Industrial  Art  Museum,  and  is  under  the 
control  of  the  Ministry  of  Public  Worship  and  Education. 
The  director  is  appointed  by  the  king  and  the  other  members 
of  the  staff  by  the  minister. 


INDUSTRIAL  ART  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE    429 

Six  courses  are  offered:  Architecture,  Sculpture,  Decorative 
Painting,  Graphic  Arts,  Metal  Work  and  Textiles. 

Prospective  day  students  must  be  at  least  fourteen  years 
of  age  and  have  completed  four  years  of  the  secondary 
schools.  All  applicants  must  submit  to  an  entrance  exami- 
nation which  consists  of  drawing  from  a  plaster  cast  of  the 
human  head,  an  ornament,  a  plant  or  colored  object,  and  the 
making  of  a  design  to  fill  a  given  space.  The  first  half-year  of 
attendance  is  probationary,  continuance  in  school  being  de- 
pendent upon  the  progress  made. 

The  fee  is  forty  crowns  per  year,  and  double  that  amount 
for  foreigners.  The  daily  hours  are  from  eight  to  noon  and 
from  two  to  six  o'clock,  excepting  on  Saturdays  and  Sundays 
which  are  reserved  for  voluntary  work  and  for  rest. 

The  morning  lessons  are  devoted  to  professional  studies 
— except  in  the  first  year— and  the  afternoon  to  complemen- 
tary, practical  and  theoretical  studies.  The  most  important 
subject  is  drawing  from  the  living  model,  to  which  forty-eight 
hours  per  week  is  devoted  during  the  entire  course.  The  work 
of  the  student  is  supplemented  by  time  spent  in  the  Indus- 
trial Art  Museum,  the  ethnological  section  of  the  National 
Museum,  the  Zoological  Garden,  and  by  studies  of  the  inter- 
esting buildings  of  the  city.  On  these  excursions,  sketches, 
drawings,  and  paintings  of  material  studied  are  required. 
Visits  are  also  made  to  industrial  establishments,  workshops 
and  exhibitions. 

The  completion  of  any  course  requires  five  years.  The  first 
three  of  these  are  spent  upon  art  and  technical  studies  and 
are  sufficient  to  permit  the  students  completing  them  to 
enter  a  trade  or  work  as  designers  or  workmasters.  Talented 
students  may  remain  at  the  school  for  a  fourth  or  fifth  year 
to  gain  a  more  complete  professional  art  education. 

There  are  no  statistics  of  the  number  of  graduates  who 
become  designers,  but  it  is  known  that  a  large  proportion  set 
up  their  own  studios  as  professional  designers  and  craftsmen, 
and  some  follow  the  fine  arts  as  painters  and  sculptors. 

The  number  of  students  enrolled  in  the  day  courses  in  1914 


430  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

was  162,  distributed  as  follows:  Architectural  Course  41, 
Sculpture  Course  27,  Decorative  Painting  Course,  23>  Graphic 
Arts  Course  31,  Metal  Work  Course  15,  Textile  Course  15. 

About  seventy-five  per  cent,  of  the  entrance  enrollment 
remain  to  the  end  of  the  third  year  and  about  twelve  per 
cent,  to  the  end  of  the  fifth  year. 

Some  members  of  the  instructing  staff  are  actually  engaged 
in  their  trades  or  professions,  and  the  students  are  given 
opportunity  for  active  assistance  to  the  teachers  in  their  com- 
mercial work.  There  are  no  advisory  committees  of  tradesmen 
in  connection  with  the  school. 

In  the  Architectural  Course  the  student  is  taught  construc- 
tion, the  various  types  and  decorative  treatment  of  furniture, 
beginning  with  single  pieces,  and  continuing  to  the  artistic 
development  of  various  kinds  of  rooms  and  entire  apartments 
according  to  a  given  floor  plan;  enough  water-color  work  to 
meet  designing  requirements,  and  the  making  of  working 
drawings.  The  student  is  also  given  exercises  in  cabinet-mak- 
ing in  the  school  workshop.  His  work  is  further  supplemented 
by  visits  to  establishments  connected  with  the  building  and 
house-furnishing  trades. 

In  the  course  in  Graphic  Arts  manual  dexterity  is  obtained 
through  special  pencil  exercises.  These  are  followed  by  draw- 
ing from  nature,  and  frequently  from  specimens  of  Hungarian 
peasant  art  work,  which  gives  a  foundation  for  designing 
post-cards  and  other  ornamental  materials.  The  work  is  done 
in  pencil,  pen-and-ink,  and  water-colors.  The  higher  classes 
design  posters  and  book  illustrations.  An  opportunity  is 
afforded  in  the  printing  shop  of  observing  and  practicing  the 
work  of  the  compositor,  lithographer  and  copper  engraver, 
and  of  practically  executing  school  designs. 

The  Metal  Work  Course  begins  with  the  making  of  tools, 
followed  by  chasing  and  a  study  of  the  various  steps  in  the 
making  and  refining  of  different  kinds  of  metal  work.  The 
elements  of  enameling,  mounting  of  precious  stones,  and  the 
making  of  jewelry  is  taught,  intimately  correlated  with  the 
work  in  design.  The  practical  methods  of  quantity  produc- 


INDUSTRIAL  ART  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE    431 

tion  are  also  taught.  The  metals  used  are  copper,  brass,  and 
silver. 

In  the  'Textile  Course  the  student  makes  designs  from  na- 
ture, peasant  art  work,  and  embroidery.  Designs  for  embroid- 
ery, which  are  limited  to  plain  stitches,  are  executed  directly 
in  the  material.  Designs  are  made  for  weaving,  lace,  batik, 
fashionable  dresses,  and  costumes  of  different  styles,  includ- 
ing those  for  the  stage. 

There  is  also  a  ceramic  workshop  in  which  designs  are 
executed  by  students. 

There  are  certain  subjects  of  instruction  such  as  drawing 
from  nature  and  the  figure,  ornamental  drawing  and  design- 
ing, lettering,  architectural  styles,  and  projective  and  per- 
spective geometry,  that  are  obligatory  upon  all  students,  and 
to  which  a  large  proportion  of  time  is  allotted.  The  practical 
art  studies  are  supplemented  by  studies  in  hygiene,  Hungarian 
literature,  history  of  art,  and  sociology. 

The  school  exerts  an  important  artistic  influence  upon 
industry.  In  industrial  art  competitions  students  are  fre- 
quently prize  winners.  Special  competitions  for  the  students 
are  arranged  for  by  commercial  firms  and  designs  are  pur- 
chased and  orders  given  for  execution  by  students.  Com- 
mercial orders  are  also  executed  in  the  printing  shop,  and  in 
the  workshops  for  metal  work,  textiles  and  ceramics. 

Special  evening  courses  are  conducted  in  designing  for 
joiners  and  cabinet-makers,  the  graphic  arts,  textile  fashion 
designing,  and  practical  metal  work.  These  technical  subjects 
are  supplemented  by  drawing  from  nature,  ornaments,  and 
the  living  figure,  and  projective  and  perspective  geometry. 

THE  INDUSTRIAL  ART  SCHOOL  AT  PRAGUE 

The  Industrial  Art  School  at  Prague  was  founded  in  1885, 
for  the  purpose  of  training  artistic  craftsmen,  and  for  the 
training  of  teachers  for  industrial  schools.  It  is  supported  by 
the  state  and  administered  by  the  Ministry  of  Public  Labor. 
The  organization  is  similar  to  that  of  the  Royal  Industrial 


432  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

Art  School  of  Vienna,  but  lays  special  stress  upon  adjusting 
its  curriculum  to  the  distinctive  local  industrial  requirements. 
The  staff  consists  of  the  Director,  sixteen  professors,  eleven 
teachers,  three  assistants  and  a  work  master. 

Classes  are  held  every  day  in  the  week,  including  Sundays, 
and  also  on  week-day  evenings,  from  October  first  to  the  end 
of  July.  Fees  in  the  general  and  women's  courses  are  fourteen 
crowns  per  half-year,  and  twenty  crowns  in  the  professional 
courses.  Foreigners  are  charged  double  the  regular  fee. 

The  day  school  has  a  General  Section  with  courses  in  draw- 
ing and  modeling,  and  a  Professional  Section  with  courses  in 
decorative  architecture,  painting,  and  sculpture,  metal  work 
and  textile  designing.  There  are  also  courses  for  women  in 
artistic  embroidery,  drawing  and  painting.  There  are  evening 
and  Sunday  courses  in  architectural,  ornamental,  and  figure 
drawing  and  in  modeling,  and  a  Sunday  course  in  geom- 
etry. 

Students  are  admitted  between  the  ages  of  fourteen  and 
thirty,  if  they  have  completed  four  terms  of  the  secondary 
schools.  Applicants  for  admission  are  required  to  submit 
specimens  of  their  work  in  drawing  or  modeling  and  to  make 
an  entrance  examination  drawing  of  the  living  head  and  of  a 
plant.  In  the  courses  for  women  the  age  limits  are  fourteen 
and  twenty-five,  and  admission  requires  the  completion  of 
three  years  of  the  secondary  school  and  the  passing  of  the 
examinations.  A  prerequisite  to  admission  to  the  textile 
designing  course  is  the  completion  of  two  years  in  the  school 
of  weaving. 

The  first  half-year  is  probationary,  at  the  end  of  which 
period  the  student's  status  is  permanently  established  if  his 
work  is  satisfactory.  At  the  end  of  each  half-year  the  student 
is  required  to  pass  an  examination  in  each  of  his  subjects. 
Judgment  is  passed  by  a  committee  of  the  staff. 

The  school  is  equipped  with  plastic  and  industrial  art 
models  and  a  library.  The  Industrial  Art  Museum,  with  its 
fine  collection  is  often  visited  by  the  students.  The  school  has 
its  own  garden  where  studies  are  conducted  in  the  summer 


INDUSTRIAL  ART  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE     433 

time.  Four  weeks  of  out-door  painting  in  the  country  during 
the  summer  is  also  afforded. 

The  students  of  the  general  course  are  prepared  to  enter 
the  industrial  art  industries  at  the  completion  of  their  course, 
but  the  majority  elect  to  continue  their  studies  in  the  special 
courses  which  afford  them  an  opportunity  for  acquiring  a 
higher  artistic  training.  These  latter  courses  are  closely  co- 
ordinated with  practical  commercial  practice  because  both 
teachers  and  students  accept  orders  for  commercial  products 
and  execute  them  within  the  school.  In  this  way  the  trans- 
ition from  the  school  atmosphere  to  that  of  industry  becomes 
easier  for  the  student. 

The  work  of  the  general  courses  consists  of  cast  and  orna- 
mental drawing  in  the  painting  section  and  of  figure  and 
ornamental  modeling  in  the  modeling  section.  In  the  third 
year  both  sections  draw  and  model  from  the  living  figure.  The 
theoretic  studies  which  supplement  the  above  are  geometry, 
theory  and  history  of  styles,  anatomy,  color  instruction, 
history  of  art,  technology,  composing,  reckoning  and  book- 
keeping. The  studies  in  drawing  and  modeling  are  largely 
analytic  in  character.  Very  little  composition  work  is  done  in 
the  general  course,  which  is  in  marked  distinction  from  the 
practice  of  the  Budapest  and  Vienna  schools.  In  the  pro- 
fessional courses  analytical  and  composition  studies  are  made, 
coupled  with  drawing  from  the  nude.  In  the  course  in  metal 
work  there  is  drawing,  bossing  in  wax  and  practical  metal 
work.  The  textile  course  aims  to  produce  textile  designers 
and  teachers  for  the  textile  schools.  The  work  consists  largely 
of  drawing  and  painting,  making  considerable  use  of  flowers 
as  models,  of  making  designs  for  embroidery,  fancy  weaving 
and  cotton  printing. 

In  the  courses  designed  for  women,  in  addition  to  the  theo- 
retical subjects  of  the  general  course,  drawing  and  painting  is 
given  using  casts,  flowers,  still  life,  and  the  human  head  as 
models.  The  subjects  of  the  embroidery  classes  are  embroidery, 
drawing,  painting,  designing,  and  the  translation  of  the  de- 
signs to  the  material  is  taught.  In  addition  to  the  theoretical 


434  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

subjects  of  the  general  course,  studies  of  embroideries,  his- 
tory of  the  textile  art,  and  a  study  of  textile  materials  used  in 
churches  and  synagogues  are  given. 

Evening  and  Sunday  courses  afford  an  opportunity  to 
artisans  employed  at  their  trade  during  the  day  to  broaden 
their  artistic  knowledge  as  applied  to  their  trades. 

In  1 913  the  enrollment  in  the  regular  day  courses  was  214, 
of  which  nearly  twenty-five  per  cent,  were  women. 


SPECIAL  ARTICLES 

THE  MUSEUM  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ART 
Henry  W.  Kent 

The  museum  of  today  groups  its  objects  of  art  in  two  classes, 
those  called  "fine,"  and  those  called  "decorative."  Thus  it  fol- 
lows a  division  which  came  into  use  in  France  in  the  eighteenth 
century,  when  painting,  sculpture,  and  architecture,  as  being 
concerned  with  the  mind  and,  particularly,  the  imagination, 
were  elevated  in  a  phrase  to  a  higher  plane  than  those  works 
of  men's  hands  in  which  usefulness  was  a  primary  concern. 
This  distinction  was  occasioned  by  an  organized  effort  to  en- 
courage the  training  of  artists  and  craftsmen,  following  the 
recognition  of  the  importance  of  the  arts,  both  fine  and  indus- 
trial, to  the  nation,  and,  so  far  as  the  latter  are  concerned,  it 
marks  the  end  of  the  mediaeval  system  of  guilds,  with  their 
training  of  the  young  and  their  responsibility  for  methods  and 
styles,  and  the  beginning  of  industrial  production  as  we  under- 
stand it  today,  with  its  irresponsibility  for  the  training  of  in- 
dividuals and  its  ignorance  of  traditions.  The  terms  "mechan- 
ical," "industrial,"  and  "useful"  have  been  used  ever  since  to 
distinguish  the  lesser  arts  from  the  "fine,"  with  the  consequent 
belittlement  which  has  attached  itself  to  them,  much  of  it 
merited,  though  none  of  it  necessary.  There  can  be  no  cause 
for  quarrel  with  the  distinction  made  by  the  French,  nor  with 
the  word  "fine"  as  applied  to  painting  and  sculpture,  but  there 
is  reason  for  protesting  against  that  imputation  of  a  lack  of 
fine  qualities  which  we  inherit  with  our  words  "mechanical" 
and  "commercial."  The  great  things  of  the  industrial  arts  are 
a  noble  inheritance,  just  as  the  great  things  of  the  fine  arts 
are,  and  often,  in  their  way,  serve  only  a  little  less  important 
purpose — the  elevation  of  men's  minds  and  the  firing  of  their 
imaginations,  to  the  perfecting  of  the  works  of  their  hands. 
The  museum  of  today,  by  its  adoption  of  the  word  "decora- 
tive" to  describe  these  arts  instead  of  "mechanical,"  "indus- 


436  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

trial,"  or  "useful,"  has  recognized  the  element  in  them  which 
before  had  been  overlooked,  or,  at  least,  unhinted  at  in  these 
words,  namely,  the  art  of  design,  which  enters  into  them,  and 
which,  while  made  to  serve  useful  industrial  purposes  through 
mechanical  means,  is  often  as  truly  fine  as  much  painting  and 
sculpture,  and  represents  just  as  surely,  just  as  vividly  as  they 
do,  the  minds  and  the  hearts  of  great  nations  ancient  and 
modern,  and  of  great  periods,  like  the  Middle  Ages  and  the 
Renaissance. 

We,  in  this  age  of  wealth,  ready  communication,  and  great 
inquisitiveness,  have  accumulated  in  the  museum  samples  of 
the  arts  of  all  times  and  peoples  for  the  pleasure  and  the  profit 
of  the  nation.  The  secrets  of  the  guilds,  cherished  gifts  from 
master  to  apprentice — the  styles — are  now  things  for  all  to 
see  and  to  know.  With  every  thing  at  our  disposal  by  way  of 
example  of  what  has  been  done,  we  have  the  incentive  to  lead 
us  to  do  more  work  and  still  better  work  in  style,  quality,  and 
design.  This  the  museum  freely  oflFers. 

The  duties  of  the  museum  of  art  to  its  public  are  clearly 
defined:  to  give  opportunity  for  the  enjoyment  of  the  fine  and 
the  decorative  arts  to  those  who  seek  enjoyment,  and  to  give 
opportunity  for  the  study  of  these  arts  to  those  who  seek 
knowledge.  The  museum  recognizes  this  scope  for  its  opera- 
tions, and  it  succeeds  or  fails  in  its  effectiveness  according  to 
the  measure  of  the  fulfillment  of  its  obligations.  The  phrase 
"art  for  art's  sake,"  coined  by  an  impractical  culture,  has  no 
place  in  a  healthy  republic.  Art  for  the  people's  sake  is  the 
motto  of  the  American  museum  today,  just  as  it  was  in  France 
in  1 800,  when  the  modern  museum  came  into  being.  In  a  word, 
then,  art  for  the  enjoyment,  for  the  study,  and  for  the  profit 
of  the  people  is  the  cornerstone  of  the  museum  edifice,  the 
object  of  its  collecting,  exhibition,  and  demonstration. 

Having  made  this  clear,  let  us  turn  to  our  chief  concern  in 
this  paper — the  part  the  museum  bears  in  the  study  of  art, 
and,  more  particularly,  its  relation  to  those  students  who  seek 
to  gain  knowledge  in  connection  with  the  making  of  objects 
of  the  decorative  arts,  the  representatives  of  that  great  body 


THE  MUSEUM  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ART         437 

in  our  national  economy  who  manufacture,  create,  produce — 
what  you  will — and  for  profit,  the  things  of  our  daily  needs: 
furniture,  ceramics,  textiles,  metal  work,  and  so  forth.  Just  as 
an  individual  grows  in  knowledge  by  study,  so  a  people  grows. 
To  improve  national  intelligence  along  any  given  line,  let  us 
say  taxation,  requires  something  more  than  legislation;  to  im- 
prove the  quality  of  our  national  manufactures  requires  some- 
thing more  than  a  protective  tariff,  or  perfected  machinery;  it 
requires  practical  instruction  in  drawing,  designing,  and,  above 
all,  in  that  most  difficult  thing,  the  knowledge  of  quality  or 
style — in  a  word,  art.  The  instruction  in  drawing  and  the 
theory  of  design  must  be  given  in  the  school  of  art  or  design 
by  expert  teachers;  the  knowledge  of  the  styles  of  the  great 
periods  of  art  must  be  gained  from  the  actual  objects  which 
illustrate  them.  No  school,  no  single  institution  of  instruction, 
however,  can  assemble  the  material  necessary  for  such  a 
schooling;  into  an  assemblage  of  such  things  goes  wealth,  goes 
knowledge  of  how  to  gather,  how  to  house,  how  to  arrange, 
how  to  show,  how  to  care  for — a  business  in  itself,  the  business 
of  the  museum.  Thus  it  is  that  in  a  perfect  state,  the  school 
teaches  the  theory  and  practice  of  design,  and  the  museum 
furnishes  the  examples  of  what  has  been  done  in  the  decora- 
tive arts,  which  holds  a  promise  of  what  may  be  done.  In  this 
way  the  museum  becomes  a  partner  in  preparing  the  men  and 
women  responsible  for  the  quality  of  art  in  those  manufac- 
tures wherein  it  has  a  place.  It  is  to  the  well-educated  designer 
or  person  charged  with  the  care  of  the  department  of  art  in  the 
factory,  more  than  to  anyone  else,  that  we  must  look  for  the 
cultivation  which  shall  give  to  the  manufacturer  the  quality 
of  art  belonging  to  his  craft  by  inheritance;  it  is  to  the  schools 
we  must  look  for  the  training  and  position  of  the  designer;  and 
it  is  to  the  museum  we  must  go,  not  alone  for  practical  help 
but  for  standards  of  judgment.  And,  furthermore,  through  its 
possession  of  the  acknowledged  treasures  of  the  arts,  the  mu- 
seum becomes  the  stern  critic  of  the  present  and  the  sponsor 
for  the  future. 

So  much  for  the  theory  of  the  museum's  place  in  the  active. 


438  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

working,  producing  world  of  design  today.  As  to  its  practice? 
It  places  at  the  disposition  of  students  everything  it  has,  sub- 
ject only  to  reasonable  care  and  safeguarding;  it  gives  oppor- 
tunities for  studying,  measuring,  comparing,  and  copying;  it 
makes  reproductions  for  memoranda;  it  gives  lectures;  it  ex- 
plains; it  exhorts. 

To  understand  completely  the  situation  of  the  museum  in 
relation  to  the  production  of  the  decorative  arts  of  today,  one 
thing  more  remains  to  be  said.  The  manufacturer  has  perfected 
his  methods  and  his  machines,  has  established  his  markets, 
has  given  this  country  a  place  of  power  in  the  industrial  world 
— he  is  proud  of  this  and  so  are  we;  but  he  has  failed  to  recog- 
nize that  one  thing  necessary  to  his  complete  success,  namely, 
the  thing  we  have  been  speaking  of — the  quality  of  fine  de- 
sign, which  is  art.  He  has  just  so  far  fallen  short  of  acquiring 
distinction  in  the  eyes  of  the  world,  nor  will  he  attain  the 
place  to  be  coveted  until  he  has  absorbed  this  quality.  The 
designer  has  failed  to  make  himself  a  necessity,  through  no 
fault  of  his  own,  but  through  the  premises  in  the  case;  he  has 
neither  the  power  nor  the  position  which  rightfully  belongs  to 
him.  And  the  school  has  failed  to  secure  these  things  for  its 
students;  it  has  failed  to  inspire.  In  just  so  far  it  has  fallen 
short  of  its  obligation  to  the  designer,  to  itself,  and  to  the 
principles  it  represents. 

The  museum  has  ever  included  in  its  collection  of  the  fine 
arts  the  works  of  living  men,  both  sculptors  and  painters;  but 
until  quite  recently,  it  accepted,  with  an  astonishing  lack  of 
independence  of  judgment  and  openness  of  mind,  the  tradi- 
tional implication  of  the  dictionary  definition  of  "mechanical" 
and  "commercial,"  and  wrote  over  the  door  to  its  galleries  of 
the  decorative  arts  "from  the  beginning,  to  the  end  of  the 
eighteenth  century."  It  shut  out  all  consideration  of  the  works 
of  men's  hands,  minds,  hearts,  and  machines  from  that  time. 
In  so  far,  it  failed  to  recognize  one  of  its  most  important  du- 
ties to  its  contemporaries,  and  its  obligation  under  its  own 
charter  to  foster  and  encourage  the  arts;  it  failed  to  distin- 
guish between  good  and  bad,  leaving  to  future  generations  to 


THE  MUSEUM  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ART         439 

determine  whether  or  not  art  in  commerce  died  with  the 
eighteenth  century;  and  it  failed  to  that  extent  in  the  enlarge- 
ment of  its  power. 

It  will  not  be  long  before  the  prejudice  of  the  world  of  art 
that  a  work  made  by  the  hand  is  good,  while  one  made  by  a 
machine  is  bad,  will  be  forgotten  in  the  understanding  of  the 
fact  that  the  machine,  like  the  hand,  is  the  tool  of  the  head. 
That  the  museum  should  now  have  awakened  to  the  necessity 
of  a  decision  as  to  the  part  it  should  play  in  modern  industrial 
life  is  the  result  of  the  stirring  of  trade  after  better  art  in  de- 
sign, and  the  accompanying  appeal  to  the  museum  for  prac- 
tical help.  A  start  has  been  made  by  the  museum  to  interest 
itself  in  products  too  long  ignored;  to  understand  conditions 
too  long  overlooked;  and  to  collect  and  display  the  work  of 
the  decorative  arts  of  today.  Soon  it  will  be  in  a  position  to 
offer  a  complete  survey  of  the  arts  it  has  proposed  to  foster, 
and  through  understanding,  sympathy,  and  practical  help, 
to  meet  such  demands  as  shall  be  made  upon  it. 

Under  these  circumstances — under  all  circumstances,  the 
museum  may  be  counted  upon  to  do  its  part,  to  provide,  to 
show,  to  explain.  In  a  word,  and  summing  up  the  whole  mat- 
ter, the  museum  contains  art,  which  is  the  mother  of  art;  and 
it  gives  of  its  advantages  for  the  knowledge  of  this  great 
source  of  power  freely,  to  the  end  that  the  arts  of  design  of 
this  nation  may  become  great. 


THE  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS  MOVEMENT  IN 
THE  UNITED  STATES 

C.  Howard  Walker 

The  directly  organized  encouragement  of  what  is  now  rec- 
ognized by  name  as  the  Arts  and  Crafts  movement  in  the 
United  States  occured  twenty-five  years  ago  in  Boston,  and 
was  the  result  of  an  exhibition  of  handicraft  work  which  was 
suggested  by  similar  exhibitions  in  London  since  1888  and  es- 
pecially of  one  in  Paris  in  1 896.  The  exhibition  was  held  in  the 
Boston  Museum  of  Fine  Arts  jointly  with  that  of  drawings  by 
members  of  the  Boston  Architectural  Club.  Its  definite  pur- 
pose was  to  develop  artistic  qualities  in  the  work  of  crafts- 
men, of  whom  there  were  already  an  appreciable  number,  and 
to  recognize  the  efforts  of  those  who  were  not  employed  by 
organized  industries  of  which  the  products  were  the  result  of 
subdivided  labor. 

The  favorable  reception  by  the  public  of  the  exhibition  of 
1897  caused  the  formation  of  the  Boston  Society  of  Arts  and 
Crafts  in  that  year.  Similar  societies  have  since  then  been 
founded  throughout  the  United  States  and  after  ten  years  the 
National  League  of  Handicraft  Societies  was  organized,  consist- 
ing of  thirty-three  constituent  Societies  in  twenty  different 
states. 

These  societies  were,  however,  at  very  considerable  dis- 
tances from  each  other,  their  standards  of  requirements  nec- 
essarily differed,  and  cooperation  was  difficult.  It  is  now  ob- 
tained through  the  medium  of  the  American  Federation  of 
Art,  each  separate  society  independently  conducting  its  own 
affairs. 

The  same  incentive,  however  is  behind  the  efforts  of  each 
and  all;  that  is,  to  raise  the  standard  of  American  handicraft. 

The  justification  of  the  formation  of  these  societies  has 
been  proved  by  their  continued  existence  and  by  their  in- 
crease, despite  the  fact  that  they  have  had  the  powerful  and 


THE  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS  MOVEMENT         441 

direct  competition  of  financed  organized  mechanical  indus- 
tries. This  competition  is  however,  more  hypothetical  than 
actual,  as  in  every  case  the  work  of  the  hand  should  have 
superior  quality  to  that  of  the  machine,  and  should  have 
therefore  a  character  transcending  machine  work.  It  would 
be  an  excellent  motto  upon  the  seal  of  an  Arts  and  Crafts 
Society  which  read,  "No  work  of  handicraft  is  justified  that 
can  be  done  better  or  as  well  by  a  machine."  The  only  assets 
which  a  machine  possesses,  and  they  are  not  to  be  minimized 
or  despised,  are  its  powers  of  accuracy  and  of  an  indefinite . 
duplication.  -^ 

At  the  foundation  of  the  Boston  Society,  the  following 
statement  of  purpose  was  affirmed.  "To  bring  together  artists 
and  craftsmen  to  the  end  of  mutual  help  and  more  sympa- 
thetic work;  to  make  the  artist  more  of  a  craftsman,  the 
craftsman  more  of  an  artist;  to  provide  a  place  where  both 
may  meet,  where  conferences  may  be  held  and  papers  read, 
where  workrooms  may  be  provided  with  tools  and  materials 
for  the  use  of  craftsmen  who  are  otherwise  unable  to  work  out 
their  ideals;  where  there  may  be  established  a  museum  of 
valuable  examples  of  applied  arts;  and  where  a  library  of 
kindred  literature  may  be  collected;  to  work  for  the  founda- 
tion of  trade  schools;  to  uphold  art  handicraft  of  all  kinds;  to 
endeavor  to  improve  the  qualities  of  that  now  done,  and  to 
restore  such  branches  as  are  now  in  abeyance;  to  hold  exhibi- 
tions of  art  handicraft  both  old  and  new,  and  to  establish 
scholarships  and  prizes  for  excellence  of  work."  An  ambitious 
and  enthusiastic  program,  but  entirely  paternal,  and  without 
recognition  of  the  relation  of  demand  and  supply,  and  the 
necessity  of  a  salesroom  or  clearing  house  for  the  work  accom- 
plished. There  was  an  underlying  implication  that  handwork 
was  intrinsically  better  than  machine  work,  which  is  not  the 
fact,  for  the  machine  can  be  used  to  lend  power,  to  aid  and  to 
supplement  the  hand,  and  has  made  possible  the  daily  use  by 
the  many  of  what  was  luxury  to  the  few,  the  printing  press 
being  an  example. 

The  original  program  also  necessitated  the  propinquity  of 


442  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

the  worker  and  the  museum  and  library  and  workshops,  and 
ignored  the  many  workers  who  were  isolated.  The  personnel 
of  the  craftsmen  was  not  considered,  for  it  was  still  an  un- 
known quantity.  Broadly  considered,  there  are  two  classes  of 
workers  in  the  world,  those  who  are  content  to  work  under  a 
superior  control  and  who  are  relieved  in  their  minds  if  re- 
sponsibility is  removed  from  their  shoulders,  and  those  who 
crave  independence  of  action  and  chafe  under  autocratic  con- 
trol. Naturally  the  latter  class,  if  successful,  is  the  cynosure 
of  all  eyes,  and  the  envy  of  the  former,  who  strive  to  enter  it, 
and  fall  back  to  the  subordinate  places  only  after  disastrous 
failure,  and  only  occasionally  for  them  is  the  goal  reached. 
But  by  force  of  control  they  learn  to  do  their  work  technically 
well.  The  latter  class,  the  individualists,  have  to  create  their 
own  control,  from  observation,  and  from  their  own  initiative; 
they  find  accuracy  irksome,  dreams  outleap  performance  and 
unless  some  standard  is  demanded  of  them,  they  fail  in  every- 
thing but  intention,  are  incapable  of  becoming  good  subor- 
dinates and  are  contumacious  derelicts.  These  two  classes  are 
especially  evident  in  all  the  artistic  pursuits,  their  character- 
istics being  most  manifest  in  the  minor  arts,  and  it  was  the 
minor  arts  which  were  the  special  province  of  the  Arts  and 
Crafts  Societies.  The  problem  to  be  solved  was  a  difficult  one. 
Persons  who  had  learned  technical  skill  but  who  had  had  no 
association  with  artistic  surroundings  and  were  untrained  in 
design,  presented  work  which  was  without  imagination  or 
beauty,  and  others  who  had  had  the  advantages  of  cultivated 
environment,  offered  an  expression  of  their  ideas  so  badly 
executed  that  it  was  inacceptable.  Of  these  two  classes  the 
first  was  much  more  amenable  to  correction  than  the  second, 
which  assumed  for  itself  knowledge  and  good  taste  which  it 
could  not  express  accurately  or  well.  Neither  class,  from  de- 
sire, wished  to  be  merely  a  factor  in  a  machine  system. 

To  help  both  demanded  tact.  The  early  results  obtained 
were  only  too  often  crude  and  puerile,  and  compared  unfa- 
vorably with  the  finished  product  of  a  machine  which  at  least 
copied  well-chosen  examples  with  accuracy.  Restraint,  indus- 


THE  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS  MOVEMENT         443 

try,  study  and  skill  must  accompany  genius  and  inspiration; 
the  achievement  of  the  handicraftsman  must  excell  that  of 
the  machine  in  some  way  or  the  entire  effort  would  be  inde- 
fensible. For  a  long  time  it  was  in  idea  only  that  any  supe- 
riority was  apparent,  and  the  work  of  the  handicraftsman 
could  only  present  the  claim  of  being  unique,  so  unique  that 
any  desire  for  its  repetition  was  inconceivable.  From  that 
very  fact,  handicraft  work  established  a  foothold.  It  was 
different  from  other  work. 
/^  But  the  virtue  of  handicraft  is  not  confined  to  its  products, 
it  is  of  great  benefit  to  its  producers.  It  has  given  opportunity 
for  creative  achievement  to  many  who  were  incapable  of  be- 
coming great  masters  which  has  enriched  their  lives.  It  has 
led  into  the  realms  of  the  arts,  than  which  there  are  no  more 
stimulating  and  beneficial  domains,  those  whose  lives  other- 
wise would  have  lacked  fine  enjoyment.  It  has  made  those 
who  have  desired  great  opportunities  the  gleaners  of  small 
opportunities  until  they  have  found  themselves  among  the 
givers  rather  than  merely  the  receivers,  and  it  has  often  been 
the  panacea  to  the  mind  that  was  sick,  from  grief  or  pain,  or 
struggle.  The  hand  asks  attention  from  the  brain,  and  re- 
freshes it  and  soothes  it  into  sanity  while  the  brain  is  intent 
upon  the  work. 

It  is  true  that  some  of  the  work  may  seem  to  have  absorbed 
insanity,  but  nevertheless  there  is  no  more  satisfactory  a 
nepenthe  for  jangled  nerves  than  manual  occupation. 

The  result  desired  has  been  therefore  to  make  the  accom- 
plishment of  handicraft  workers  individual,  skilful,  imagina- 
tive and  beautiful,  transcending  the  output  of  the  machine, 
and  then,  if  the  machine  can  successfully  repeat  it,  so  much 
the  better  for  the  machine. 

The  standard  desired  by  the  Arts  and  Crafts  Societies 
should  therefore  be  high.  But  on  the  other  hand  the  feeble  and 
adolescent  must  be  encouraged,  for  from  their  ranks  the  skil- 
ful are  reenforced.  As  a  result,  many  varieties  of  work  of  vari- 
ous degrees  of  merit  occur. 

Very  early  in  the  history  of  the  Boston  society  it  was  rec- 


444  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

ognized  that  there  must  be  a  salesroom  for  the  exhibition  and 
sale  of  the  work  of  members,  otherwise  there  was  no  point  of 
contact  between  the  worker  and  the  prospective  buyer.  The 
objection  that  this  gave  a  commercial  taint  to  the  enterprise 
did  not  maintain,  for  there  is  nothing  dishonorable  in  com- 
merce per  se,  and  the  salesroom  acts  as  a  permanent  exhibi- 
tion. 

The  early  statement  of  purposes  of  the  Boston  society  has 
become  instead  a  statement  of  principles,  which  is  published 
on  one  page  of  the  Annual  Report,  as  follows: 

*T  Motives — ^The  motive  of  the  craftsman  is  the  love  of 
good  and  beautiful  work  as  applied  to  useful  service,  and  the 
need  of  making  an  adequate  livelihood.  In  no  case  can  it  be 
primarily  the  love  of  gain. 

II  Conditions — ^The  conditions  of  true  handicraft  are  nat- 
ural aptitude,  thorough  technical  training  and  a  just  appre- 
ciation of  standards. 

III  Artistic  Cooperation — ^When  the  designer  and  the  work- 
man are  not  united  in  the  same  person,  they  should  work  to- 
gether, so  that  their  individual  faculties  become  united  in  the 
work. 

IV  Modern  Craftsmanship  requires  that  the  idea  of  patron- 
age be  superseded  by  that  of  cooperation  and  reciprocal 
service. 

V  The  results  desired  are  the  training  of  craftsmen,  the  de- 
veloping of  individual  character  in  connection  with  artistic 
work  and  the  raising  of  the  standard  of  beauty  in  objects  of 
use." 

Again  a  broad  statement,  but  capable  of  realization,  as  the 
facts  have  proven.  Farther  on  in  the  report  is  a  further  state- 
ment, i.  e. : 

"The  Society  endeavors  to  stimulate  in  workmen  an  ap- 
preciation of  the  dignity  and  value  of  good  design;  to  counter- 
act popular  impatience  of  law  and  form,  and  the  desire  for 
overornamentation  and  specious  originality,  and  insists  upon 
the  necessity  of  restraint  of  ordered  arrangements,  and  of  a 
due  regard  for  the  relation  between  the  form ofan object  and  its 


THE  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS  MOVEMENT         445 

use,  and  of  harmony  and  fitness  in  the  decoration  put  upon  it." 
The  society  is  incorporated.  Its  members  elect  its  officers 
and  council  and  committees  and  a  Craftsman  Advisory  Board 
which  board  is  practically  one  of  suggestion,  and  the  clearing 
house  of  any  dissatisfaction  in  the  Governing  Council.  The 
members  of  the  Council  are  elected  for  terms  of  three  years, 
the  personnel  of  one  third  of  the  Council  changing  each  year. 
As  one  of  the  chief  purposes  of  the  society  was  to  stimulate 
good  work;  a  jury  was  constituted  which  sifts  the  work  pre- 
sented, and  rejects  unacceptable  offerings,  and  as  the  desire 
was  to  encourage  workers,  it  was  decided  to  state  definitely 
to  those  whose  work  was  rejected  the  exact  reasons  for  the  re- 
jection, and  to  suggest  to  them  how  the  work  could  be  made 
acceptable,  to  inform  them  where  similar  work  of  fine  quality 
could  be  studied;  mentioning  the  literature,  and  the  plates 
illustrating  it,  and  in  many  cases,  designs,  profiles  and  sil- 
houettes are  redrawn  to  indicate  beneficial  changes.  This  is 
done  with  all  rejected  designs  every  week,  unless  criticism  is 
not  desired,  and  it  has  been  found  that  while  at  first  the  com- 
ments of  the  Critic  of  the  Jury  were  sometimes  received  as  an 
impertinence,  at  present  criticism  is  desired  and  welcomed  by 
most  of  the  workers. 

The  membership  of  the  society  is  divided  into  three  classes: 
Craftsmen,  Masters  and  Associates.  The  Masters  are  those  of 
the  Craftsmen  who  have  become  accomplished  in  their  crafts. 
Associates  are  those  who,  while  interested  in  the  work,  are  not 
craftsmen.  The  income  is  from  the  annual  dues,  which  are 
nominal,  and  the  percentage  upon  sales.  All  profits,  above 
necessary  expenditures,  are  devoted  to  the  interests  of  the 
Craftsmen,  who  themselves  have  established  Guilds  which 
have  stimulated  both  study  and  achievement.  The  Boston 
Society  has  been  cited  as  typical  for  the  reason  that  it  is  the 
parent  society  and  one  of  the  most  active,  and  has  a  member- 
ship of  261  Master  Craftsmen,  609  Craftsmen  and  171  Asso- 
ciates, a  total  of  1,041,  and  its  annual  sales  average  $130,000. 
It  is  therefore  apparent  that  the  Arts  and  Crafts  movement 
has  deserved  well  of  the  public. 


446  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

It  has  had,  and  is  having  still  more,  an  appreciable  effect 
upon  industrial  art  throughout  the  country.  As  the  Standard 
of  the  work  of  individual  Craftsmen  rises,  the  output  of  com- 
mercialized work  unconsciously  rises  with  it.  If  it  does  not  it 
suffers  a  pecuniary  loss. 

Therefore  it  is  essential  that  the  Arts  and  Crafts  should  re- 
ject inferior  work.  The  best  hope  of  these  individual  workers 
is  to  ascend  beyond  competition  excepting  by  their  peers,  in 
fact  it  is  the  chief  justification  for  their  existence.  Arts  and 
Crafts  in  its  earlier  days  was  pathetically  ignorant  and  char- 
itable. That  stage  has  passed,  and  at  present  its  workers  have 
often  a  unique  claim  to  distinction  in  their  work.  Nothing 
of  the  work  of  handicraftsmen  can  equal  in  quantity  that  of 
the  united  efforts  of  large  organizations  whose  purpose  is  to 
multiply  examples.  Quality  of  work  is  therefore  the  only  hope 
of  the  Handicraftsman. 

He  must  lead,  not  follow.  An  attitude  of  mind  which  ac- 
knowledges that  distinction  is  an  essential  and  is  stimulating 
to  all  the  arts,  is  productive  of  constant  improvement,  and  is 
refreshing  in  the  monotony  of  every-day  progress. 

It  is  this  stimulus  which  the  Handicraftsmen  can  give,  and 
which  they  have  already  proved  that  they  are  giving. 


THE  RELATION  OF  BEAUTY  TO  FASHION 

Frank  Alvah  Parsons 

Desire  for  beauty  has  been  a  universal  instinct  since  primi- 
tive man  first  sought  to  beautify  his  cave,  tent,  or  hut  with 
crude  pictures  of  his  prowess  and  with  his  weapons,  his 
utensils,  and  his  trophies.  This  instinct  has  always  been 
manifest  in  the  choice  and  arrangement  not  only  of  his  own 
clothing  and  personal  ornaments,  but  in  those  of  his  women 
as  well;  each,  no  doubt,  having  the  thought  of  the  other  in 
mind  in  choosing  these  things. 

In  form,  line,  color,  and  texture,  beauty,  as  men  have  con- 
ceived it,  has  found  expression  in  his  works  since  the  begin- 
ning of  time,  and  has  always  been  given  some  sort  of  right 
to  exist  in  relation  to  other  elements  considered  essential  to 
a  complete  life.  The  difference  in  various  concepts  of  what 
constitutes  beauty  gives  rise  to  what  is  known  as  taste,  which 
we  characterize  as  good  or  bad,  according  to  the  quality  of 
the  standard  which  we  have  accepted. 

This  desire  for  beauty  has  given  birth  to  a  universal  aes- 
thetic impulse  which  in  our  time  seems  to  be  concerned,  at 
least  in  the  matter  of  visual  expression,  with  the  same  old 
conceptions  of  the  house  and  its  furnishings,  and  with  clothes 
and  personal  adornment.  With  the  essentials  of  these  things, 
design  is  largely  interested. 

Fashion  is  a  complex  thing;  often  unintelligent  in  its  con- 
ceptions, tyrannical  in  its  demands,  invincible  in  its  power, 
but  seemingly  universal  in  its  appeal.  It  varies  only  in  form 
and  violence  of  expression,  according  to  nationality,  historic 
period,  sex,  or  age. 

Babylonian  women  painted  their  faces  because  the  queen 
did  so;  those  of  Carthage  bobbed  their  hair  in  flattering 
imitation  of  a  great  general's  female  favorite;  mediaeval 
ladies  allowed  their  hair  to  creep  from  beneath  their  caps  in 
defiance  of  the  Church,  merely  because  a  daring  court  beauty 
found  it  alluring;  Catherine  de  Medici  allowed  her  skirts  to 
be  made  so  short  that  her  pretty  feet  were  partly  exposed. 


448  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

and  we  read  that  in  a  year  "every  well-born  lady  in  France 
had  gone  and  done  likewise";  there  were  seventeen  fashions 
in  hats,  too,  in  seven  months,  in  France  during  the  reign 
of  Marie  Antoinette,  apparently  all  because  she  began  it. 

Women  still  do  strange  things  in  obedience  to  the  mandates 
of  fashion,  but  men,  even  in  these  stern  and  scientific  days  of 
one  hundred  per  cent,  efficiency,  do  not  forget  to  put  on 
straw  hats  May  15  th  and  take  them  off  September  15  th,  or 
to  attire  themselves  in  clothing  for  full  dress  in  such  manner 
that  it  is  with  difficulty  one  knows  his  most  intimate  friend 
from  the  others,  or  from  the  waiters  who  serve  them.  Fashion 
is,  was,  and  probably  always  will  be,  one  of  the  most  import- 
ant factors  in  determining  not  only  what  people  will  do,  but 
when,  how,  and  from  what  motive  they  will  do  it. 

To  see  with  a  degree  of  clearness  the  relations  we  are 
considering,  it  is  necessary  to  analyze  to  some  extent  to  find 
the  elements  that  are  responsible  for  fashion,  and  for  the 
universality  of  its  power. 

First,  it  is  the  way  of  human  beings  to  tire  of  a  long-contin- 
ued presentation  of  one  thing;  monotony  fatigues,  and  we 
crave  variety,  something  that  will  arouse  the  lagging  interest, 
stimulate  new  sensations  and  furnish  something  new  for  us 
to  think  about.  Fashion  recognizes  this  fact  and  avails  itself 
of  it  to  the  limit. 

In  historic  periods,  or  with  individuals  where  a  strong  aes- 
thetic desire  has  been  encouraged,  and  where  a  high  standard 
of  taste  has  been  attained,  fashion  has  furnished  constant 
opportunity  for  new  expressions  of  beauty,  but  when  the 
aesthetic  sense  has  been  ignored  and  a  low  standard  of  taste 
accepted,  fashion  has  been  no  less  dictatorial,  no  less  change- 
able, but  the  results  have  been  ugly,  abnormal,  and  crude. 
Many  of  the  present  fashions  speak  for  themselves. 

Second,  economic  conditions  and  commercial  interests  are 
inseparable  from  the  fashion  idea.  The  law  of  supply  and 
demand,  the  interrelations  of  industries,  the  competitive 
instinct,  love  of  gain,  and  many  phases  of  the  economic 
structure  have  each  a  part  in  determining  the  nature,  as  well 


THE  RELATION  OF  BEAUTY  TO  FASHION     449 

as  contributing  to  the  power  of  fashion.  These  forces  all 
influence  the  nature  of  a  new  fashion;  but  we  must  recognize 
that  the  excuse  for  a  new  fashion  must  be  an  appeal  to  the 
beauty  or  taste  of  the  time  for  its  existence,  that  a  beautiful 
fashion  is  as  desirable  commercially  as  an  ugly  one,  and  in 
competition  with  other  nations  or  individuals  with  a  higher 
taste  standard  than  ours,  it  is  distinctly  more  so. 

Third,  fear  is  and  always  has  been  a  compelling  influence 
in  human  experience.  It  operates  in  the  field  of  fashion  in  the 
form  of  a  dread  of  being  thought  behind  the  times,  too  poor, 
or  not  intelligent  enough  to  get  the  right  thing  at  the  right 
time.  Of  such  things  as  these  is  fashion  perse  made.  It  is 
obvious  that  we  may  not  ignore  it,  evident  that  it  has  a  place 
in  social  and  economic  life,  and  certain  that  it  should  not  be 
confused  with  beauty  or  taste,  either  in  its  nature  or  its 
function.  What  we  desire,  however,  is  to  see  precisely  the 
relation  that  each  bears  to  the  other. 

At  present  there  is  a  strong  movement  in  trade  circles  to 
make  the  United  States  of  America  the  center  of  fashion  in 
clothes  for  women,  instead  of  Paris,  which  has  held  that  posi- 
tion without  question  for  three  centuries  or  more.  This  means 
a  tremendous  change  in  economic  proportion,  but  it  means 
also  that  taste  standards  will  either  be  appreciably  lowered, 
or  the  American  public  must  be  made  to  consider  these  things 
from  a  new  point  of  view,  especially  in  the  realm  of  trade, 
where  prevailing  standards  of  taste  abroad  have  been  accept- 
ed rather  than  appreciated  by  those  who  brought  fashions 
in  dress  here  for  distribution. 

Beauty  is  the  result  of  such  a  choice  and  arrangement  of 
form,  line,  color,  and  texture  as  will  satisfy  the  cultivated 
aesthetic  sense,  or  such  an  arrangement  that  a  high-grade  of 
aesthetic  perception  will  react  pleasantly  upon  its  presentation. 

Fashion  is  that  ephemeral  element  in  human  life  of  which 
the  aim  is  the  satisfaction  of  the  universal  desire  for  change,  for 
rivalry,  for  distinction ;  it  appeals  directly  to  our  vanity  and 
its  caprices  furnish  splendid  opportunities  for  invention  and 
for  commercial  exploitation. 


450  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

Of  all  the  art  professions  dress  obviously  is  the  most  subtle, 
complex,  and  interesting.  It  is  in  this  field  therefore  that  we 
may  perhaps  best  see  concretely  the  reactive  influence  of 
beauty  and  fashion. 

In  every  industrial  creation  there  should  be  first  a  clear 
conception  of  exactly  what  function  the  object  created  is 
designed  to  perform,  and  what  prompted  its  inception.  We 
may  well  ask  this  question  first,  for  on  the  answer  depends 
what  part  should  be  allotted  to  fashion  in  determining  the 
result. 

The  sense  oi  privacy,  in  which  the  first  ideas  of  dress  were 
conceived,  seems  practically  to  have  faded  from  mass  con- 
sciousness. This  fact  greatly  influences  our  standard  of  beauty, 
since  modern  styles  expose  all  that  is  ugliest  of  the  human 
body,  when  one  of  the  functions  of  clothes  is  to  assist  in 
concealing  the  ugly  and  in  establishing  an  illusion  of  beauty. 

Another  reason  for  clothes  is  found  in  our  natural  desire  for 
shelter.  In  some  periods  fashions  have  shown  a  distinct  regard 
for  this  instinct,  and  a  careful  adaptation  of  dress  to  the 
peculiarities  of  geography,  season,  and  other  conditions. 
Now,  however,  there  seems  to  be  no  indication  that  this 
aspect  of  the  question  receives  any  notice,  for  only  parts  of 
the  body  are  considered — summer  or  winter,  indoors  or  out. 
Thus  has  fashion  or  some  other  intruder  crowded  out  of  our 
conception  a  primary  consideration  in  the  design  of  clothes. 

The  third,  and  in  this  epoch  the  all-important  reason  for 
clothes  lies  in  the  instinct  for  adornment,  with  the  belief  that 
adornment  means  beauty,  and  therefore  attractiveness  of  the 
sort  produced  by  artistic  decorative  ensemble.  The  impulses 
active  in  this  desire  are  aesthetic,  and  if  rightly  understood 
a;nd  directed,  would  result  in  the  creation  of  beauty;  mis- 
understood and  misdirected,  the  result  is  an  aggregate  of 
inharmonious  proportions,  lines,  colors,  and  textures,  in  dis- 
cord with  the  individual  and  without  decorative  efi'ect  in 
combination.  Both  intelligence  and  the  aesthetic  sense  will 
be  active  in  any  practical  style,  worthy  the  name. 

It  happens  that  every  individual  is  attempting  to  satisfy 


THE  RELATION  OF  BEAUTY  TO  FASHION     451 

a  set  of  aesthetic  impulses,  and  at  the  same  time  the  desire 
for  self-expression,  in  the  selecting  and  combination  of  the 
articles  of  dress  we  use.  The  quality  of  our  results  is  the 
measure  of  our  taste.  The  average  taste  (or  beauty  appreci- 
ation) of  a  family,  a  community,  or  a  nation,  rises  no  higher 
than  the  average  taste  of  the  individuals  who  compose  the 
group.  This  makes  general  taste  cultivation  imperative  if  a 
national  taste  or  appreciation  of  beauty  is  to  be  desired;  and 
it  is,  if  anything  of  aesthetic  quality  is  to  be  created. 

Perhaps  a  further  analysis  of  the  impulse  for  personal 
adornment,  or  if  we  may  so  designate  it,  the  desire  to  be 
attractive,  may  emphasize  the  place  beauty  should  have 
not  only  in  our  conception  of  fashion,  but  in  our  whole  con- 
cept of  dress. 

Fundamentally  the  aim  of  both  sexes  is  to  dress  in  such  a 
manner  as  will  make  each  attractive  to  the  other.  It  is  the 
fashion  to  say  in  this  epoch  that  this  instinct  to  be  attractive 
is  confined  to  the  female  of  the  species.  That  is  a  mistake, 
although  the  standardization  of  men's  clothes  at  the  present 
time  has  done  much  to  supress  this  instinct  through  narrowing 
the  range  of  choice  in  materials,  patterns,  and  ornaments, 
from  which  he  may  choose  and  be  in  fashion  without  losing 
his  identity  as  a  masculine  type. 

Not  until  the  nineteenth  century  did  this  standardization 
process  begin,  so  that  in  none  of  the  interesting  historic 
periods,  where  beauty  in  dress  was  obviously  an  asset,  did 
the  male  give  less  attention  to  detail  than  the  female. 

We  read  also  that  even  "the  grand  ladies  of  the  Renais- 
sance, fighting  off  the  traditions  of  Gothic  mediaevalism, 
bared  their  heads,  curled  their  hair,  used  paint  and  perfume, 
and  bared  their  bosoms  to  the  never-ending  admiration  of 
the  cavaliers  of  their  time." 

We  find  the  dress  of  Gabrielle  d'Estrees,  mistress  of  Henry 
IV  of  France,  "so  loaded  with  gold,  silver,  and  precious 
stones  that  it  was  absolutely  impossible  for  her  to  move 
about,  and  well-nigh  so  for  her  to  stand,  such  was  the  extent 
of  her  finery."  All  this,  no  doubt,  that  the  eyes  of  the  gallant 


452  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

Henry  might  by  no  chance  rest  upon  his  baroque  queen,  or 
on  any  of  the  less  "loaded"  ladies  of  his  court. 

In  one  of  these  periods  it  was  the  common  practice  to 
attract  by  exposing  those  parts  of  the  body  that  were  believed 
to  make  an  appeal;  in  another  it  was  the  fashion  to  get  the 
attention  in  different  manner  and  to  proceed  another  way 
after  having  done  so,  but  the  instinct  to  attract  was  the  same 
in  both,  and  the  appeal  was  largely  to  the  opposite  sex. 

This  instinct,  evident  throughout  history,  is  just  as  marked 
now  and  has  taxed  to  the  limit  the  inventive  genius  of  those 
who  create  fashions,  necessitating  the  constant  invention  of 
something  new  and  unique  that  will  satisfy  both  the  conscious 
and  subconscious  desire  to  be  attractive. 

At  such  time  as  the  aesthetic  impulse  has  been  intensely 
active  and  beauty  has  been  appraised  at  its  true  value,  fashions 
have  given  birth  to  extraordinary  creations  in  material,  form, 
line,  and  color;  beautiful  in  ensemble  and  fascinating  in  detail. 

On  the  other  hand,  history  is  replete  with  epochs  in  which 
fashions  have  been  ugly,  clothes  tawdry,  materials  unattrac- 
tive, and  the  people  who  wore  them  grotesque  in  consequence. 

Rightly  directed,  this  desire  to  be  attractive  may  result  in 
a  high  grade  of  taste  if  the  conscious  aim  of  the  individual  is 
beauty  rather  than  sham,  show,  or  that  mob  movement 
called  fashion. 

Sex  attraction,  however,  is  by  no  means  the  only  element 
that  prompts  us  to  follow  fashion.  There  is  the  vanity  instinct, 
the  desire  to  be  pretty,  even  beautiful,  just  for  the  sake  of  the 
pleasure  experienced  in  being  thought  so.  To  achieve  this 
would  seem  also  to  require  a  knowledge  of  beauty  and  the 
elements  of  good  taste  in  order  to  avoid  the  same  common 
types  of  expression  that  are  found  when  one  is  prompted  by 
other  impulses,  and  when  one  acts  on  them  without  thought 
of  the  true  quality  which  the  creation  should  achieve. 

Many  times  too,  perhaps  always,  in  the  complex  motive 
which  results  in  dress  as  an  art,  the  element  of  rivalry  is 
found.  It  is  the  sport  instinct  that  urges  us  to  look  as  well  as 
our  neighbor,  to  wish  not  to  be  outdone  by  others  in  fashion 


THE  RELATION  OF  BEAUTY  TO  FASHION      453 

or  in  good  taste — a  commendable  instinct  when  judiciously 
exercised  and  wisely  directed,  but  not  when  it  tends  to  leave 
to  fashion  alone  the  choice  of  what  to  wear,  and  when,  and 
where. 

It  seems  that  from  any  angle  that  one  views  this  matter 
the  concept  of  dress  is  and  always  has  been,  the  source  of 
strong  aesthetic  impulses,  providing  an  unlimited  field  for 
creation,  while  it  is  indissolubly  mixed  with  social,  economic, 
and  educational  ideals. 

It  is  fair  to  predict  that  if  men  and  women  have  manifested 
identically  the  same  primary  instincts  in  relation  to  each 
other  and  to  life,  exactly  the  same  impulses  directing  their 
acts,  and  precisely  the  same  veneration  for  fashion  for  these 
thousand  years,  they  are  likely  to  keep  on  as  long  as  there 
are  human  beings  left  to  reckon  with. 

Since  striving  for  beauty  is  and  always  has  been  regarded 
as  not  only  legitimate  but  essential,  we  may  assume  that  this 
is  as  true  now  as  it  ever  was,  and  that  if  we  are  not  producing 
beauty,  it  is  not  for  lack  of  conscious  recognition  of  its  value, 
or  of  knowledge  on  the  part  of  design  leaders  as  to  how  to 
attain  that  quality. 


THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  A  DESIGN 
REGISTRATION  LAW 

C.  R.  Clifford 

In  the  last  few  years,  we  have  been  buried  under  the  rush 
and  turmoil  of  money  making,  and  have  developed  an  utter 
disregard  for  the  welfare  of  others. 

We  had  plunged  into  a  vortex  of  greed  that  almost  robbed 
us  of  our  soul  and  only  when  upon  the  brink  of  national  dis- 
aster did  we  awaken  to  the  fact  that  no  nation  or  business 
could  stand  upon  the  theory  that  a  compact  or  contract  was 
a  mere  scrap  of  paper  to  be  destroyed  at  will. 

But  cancellations  are  not  the  only  evils.  Our  conscience 
has  not  yet  been  awakened  to  a  greater  evil,  that  of  design 
piracy,  a  violation  of  the  seventh  commandment,  absolutely 
dishonest  and  indefensible,  and  yet  so  customary  that  it  has 
blinded  the  whole  business  world  to  its  destructive  influence 
on  trade  development. 

Under  present  conditions  a  thief  can  steal  a  truckload  of 
silks  and  be  sent  to  jail  for  a  long  term,  but  a  manufacturer 
can  steal  all  the  designs  on  that  truck  and  nothing  is  done  to 
him. 

The  United  States  Government  recognizes  the  legality  of 
property  rights  in  design  but  gives  protection  at  an  expense 
of  about  $45  per  design  covering  patent  fees  and  lawyer's 
fees.  Consequently  the  expense  being  so  great,  the  law  is 
seldom  invoked. 

There  is  a  bill,  however,  before  Congress  called  the  Design 
Registration  Bill  which  gives  designers  and  manufacturers 
full  protection  for  the  small  fee  of  $i. 

The  bill  does  not  suggest  any  new  or  enlarged  measure  of 
protection  nor  does  it  open  any  new  principles  of  law.  It 
simply  provides  that  the  law  of  protection  already  accorded 
in  the  Patent  Law,  should  be  covered  by  the  more  direct  and 
less  expensive  administration  of  a  copyright. 

There  never  was  a  time  when  the  passage  of  this  bill  would 


DESIGN  REGISTRATION  LAW  455 

be  more  heartily  endorsed  than  right  now.  As  a  result  of  the 
European  war,  innumerable  manufacturers  who  always  de- 
pended for  inspiration  upon  European  designs  and  gave  little 
encouragement  to  American  talent,  were  compelled  to  open 
up  studios  of  their  own,  with  the  result  that  today  they  are 
clamoring  for  protection.  And  this  protection  is  not  only 
rational  from  a  business  standpoint,  encouraging  as  it  does  the 
study  of  design,  the  protection  of  design,  the  manufacture  of 
design  and  the  production  of  new  materials,  but  it  commends 
itself  to  any  fair-minded  man  who  views  the  situation  from 
the  standpoint  of  common  honesty  and  decency. 

Why  open  design  schools,  why  support  art  societies,  why 
educate  designers  if  the  products  of  their  skill  can  be  appro- 
priated by  anybody  ? 

In  defence  of  piracy,  plagiarism  is  frequently  explained  as 
the  unconscious  absorption  of  another  man's  ideas.  We  must 
handle  this  phase  of  the  subject  as  we  handle  kleptomania. 
The  more  serious  attitude  is  that  of  the  man  who  says  there 
is  no  such  thing  as  originality  in  design,  that  everything  is 
old,  and  where  a  thing  is  simply  changed  a  bit,  we  cannot 
claim  it  as  original. 

This  is  the  smoke-screen  behind  which  the  pirate  hides. 
He  might  as  well  claim  that  authorship  is  unprotectable  be- 
cause the  author  uses  words  that  are  not  original.  It  is  the 
way  the  words  are  used  that  make  a  composition  original. 
There  is  nothing  original  in  the  form  of  the  eye,  nose,  ear 
or  mouth  but  the  Lord  has  produced  millions  of  faces  with 
these  common  motives,  and  all  original. 

Nobody  objects  to  following  the  style  of  a  competitor's 
pattern.  The  period  styles  are  all  old.  The  greatest  artists 
in  the  world  followed  each  other  in  interpreting  style  but 
they  didn't  copy.  A  style  is  a  relationship.  A  design  is  a  defin- 
ite interpretation. 

But  why  quibble  in  the  matter?  There  are  so  many  designs 
that  are  palpable  steals  that  we  needn't  worry  ourselves  by 
splitting  hairs  over  those  of  questionable  infringement.  Every 
public  designer  will  tell  you  of  the  orders  that  he  receives  to 


456  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

copy  patterns.  Every  girl  that  comes  out  of  an  art  school 
will  tell  you  that  she  isn't  encouraged  to  be  original;  she  is 
put  to  copying. 

The  custom  involves  the  manufacturer  in  enormous  over- 
head expense,  compelling  him  continually  to  bring  out  new 
things,  new  things,  new  things,  to  take  the  place  of  designs, 
some  of  them  only  a  few  months  old  and  which  have  been 
copied  in  cheaper  and  still  cheaper  materials,  and  cheaper 
and  still  cheaper  workmanship,  and  ever  at  less  and  less 
money,  but  always  in  poorer  quality. 

Everybody  is  injured  by  this  practice.  The  traveling  man 
suffers,  and  the  buyer  has  always  the  thought  in  his  mind 
that  in  a  few  months  some  other  salesman  will  come  along 
with  the  same  patterns  pirated  at  less  money — so  he  buys 
accordingly. 

Any  publisher  will  tell  you  that  his  advertisers  are  afraid 
to  let  him  illustrate  their  new  patterns  and  this  fear  of  piracy 
prevents  the  publisher  from  giving  his  readers  the  news  of 
new  things  and  prevents  the  advertiser  from  benefiting  by 
this  kind  of  publicity. 

The  present  conditions  are  analogous  to  those  that  existed 
in  the  literary  world  before  the  passage  of  the  International 
Copyright  Law.  The  public  was  fed  with  reprints  of  old 
authors  and  competition  in  the  printing  of  these  books  left 
the  publisher  with  little  profit.  New  books  that  were  brought 
out  were  invariably  translations.  Publishers  preferred  to 
reprint  from  foreign  sources  rather  than  pay  royalties  on 
original  manuscript.  And  translators  were  all  busy  pirating 
everything  and  anything  from  Europe.  Everybody  in  the 
business  was  a  peddler  of  stolen  property;  everybody  in  cut- 
throat competition. 

Then  the  Copyright  Law  was  passed  and  immediately 
when  piracy  by  translation  was  stopped,  authorship  was 
encouraged,  and  American  talent  developed  amazingly.  The 
book  stores  became  filled  with  new  books.  The  newstands 
were  overloaded  with  new  fiction.  American  talent  developed 
almost  over  night  and  publishers,  printers  and  writers  have 


DESIGN  REGISTRATION  LAW  457 

equally  shared  in  the  great  prosperity  that  has  followed.  To- 
day, no  sane  publisher  in  the  United  States  would  want  to 
return  to  the  piracy  methods  of  thirty  years  ago. 

In  industrial  art  it  is  impossible  to  encourage  development 
without  protection.  "Art  for  art's  sake"  sounds  good  in 
Bohemia,  but  "Protection  for  art's  sake"  is  a  more  sensible 
slogan. 

If  we  are  to  develop  industrial  art,  we  must  protect  indus- 
trial art.  Let  the  worker  be  worthy  of  his  hire.  We  talk  art; 
we  organize  associations  for  the  promotion  and  stimulation 
of  art;  we  establish  design  schools — but  we  fail  to  lay  the 
corner-stone  for  all  such  structures. 


THE  WIENER  WERKSTAETTE 

Prof.  Gyula  Mihalik 

The  cooperation  between  designers  and  craftsmen  in 
Austria-Hungary  has  given  rise  to  several  industrial  art  estab- 
lishments, the  best  known  of  which  isthe  Wiener  Werkstaette. 
This  institution  was  founded  under  the  leadership  of  Professor 
Josef  Hoffman  at  the  beginning  of  the  present  century.  It 
has  produced  important  results  in  applied  art,  especially  in 
the  line  of  striking  novelties. 

The  Werkstaette  was  a  cooperative  undertaking  by  artists 
seeking  to  carry  out  their  own  ideas.  Membership  was  gained 
by  election  and  control  rested  entirely  with  the  artists. 
Shortly  after  its  first  exhibition,  the  Werkstaette  opened  a 
shop  in  the  center  of  Vienna  which  in  its  establishment  and 
decoration  presented  a  striking  contrast  with  the  appearance 
of  the  usual  establishment.  The  public,  at  the  beginning,  was 
slow  in  grasping  the  significance  of  the  original  products 
displayed.  At  first  the  artist  members  of  the  work-shops  paid 
little  heed  to  the  prevailing  public  taste  but  eventually  were 
convinced  of  the  necessity  of  compromising  their  artistic 
principles  with  the  exigencies  of  practical  demand. 

The  Wiener  Werkstaette  has  its  own  work-shop  but  co- 
operates with  outside  craftsmen  and  with  the  industries.  Their 
products  include  cabinet  work,  glassware,  ceramics,  silver- 
ware, jewelry  and  enameling, embroideries,  printed  and  woven 
textiles,  book-binding,  printing,  basket  and  leather  work,  and 
objects  in  wood  and  paper.  The  artists  of  the  Werkstaette 
also  carry  out  commissions  for  the  decoration  of  rooms  or 
entire  apartments. 

Before  the  beginning  of  the  World  War  the  dressmakers  of 
Vienna  exercised  a  considerable  influence  on  women's  styles. 
They  developed  fashion  shows  and  in  competition  with  Paris 
they  achieved  a  certain  vogue  within  the  limits  of  the  Central 
European  nations.  The  Wiener  Werkstaette  entered  this 
field  by  opening  its  own  dressmaking  shop.  At  first  the  artists 
were  not  very  successful  in  their  attempt  to  express  the  indi- 


THE  WIENER  WERKSTAETTE  459 

vidual  character  of  the  wearer  in  their  dress.  Later  on,  with 
slight  accommodations  to  the  prevailing  fashions  in  regard 
to  styles  and  materials  they  made  a  greater  success  and  se- 
cured considerable  influence  in  the  world  of  fashion.  The 
workshop  now  participates  in  fashion  shows  conducted  by 
the  Model  Society,  the  membership  of  which  includes  dress- 
makers and  others  connected  with  the  women's  apparel 
industry  of  Vienna.  These  shows  are  visited  by  buyers  and 
exhibits  are  made  abroad  with  the  aim  of  competing  with 
Paris  fashions.  The  experience  in  regard  to  women's  dress  is 
typical  of  the  history  of  the  Werkstaette  in  other  lines.  The 
public,  which  was  at  first  shocked  by  the  novel  effects  intro- 
duced, came  gradually  to  exercise  greater  appreciation  and 
eventually  the  products  of  the  organization  became  the  vogue 
with  the  result  that  the  influence  of  the  workshops  was 
gradually  extended  and  their  business  success  assured.  Since 
the  war,  the  organization  has  been  greatly  weakened,  but 
is  still  in  existence  and  operating  along  the  original  lines. 


AGENCIES  FURTHERING  THE 

SITUATION  IN  NEW  YORK  CITY 

AND  CHICAGO 

THE  METROPOLITAN  MUSEUM  OF  ART 

Early  recognizing  the  availability  of  its  collections  for 
inspiration,  study,  and  comparison  in  the  making  of  the 
industrial  arts  of  today,  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art 
has  consistently  offered,  as  one  of  its  functions,  opportunities 
for  their  use  by  students  of  the  arts,  designers,  and  other 
workers,  through  various  privileges  and  methods  of  approach. 

For  the  individual,  permits  for  sketching,  measuring,  copy- 
ing and  photographing  are  given,  with  locker  conveniences, 
easels,  a  dark  room  for  photographers,  and  rooms  for  study, 
and  for  discussion.  Photographs  of  all  objects  in  the  collections 
are  sold  in  various  sizes  at  a  nominal  cost,  while  special  photo- 
graphs or  blue-prints  to  show  details  of  ornament  or  manu- 
facture are  made  on  application.  A  member  of  the  staff  meets 
anyone  desirous  of  his  services  in  looking  up  subjects  or 
objects  sought  in  galleries  or  study-rooms.  Rooms  containing 
collections  not  on  exhibition,  especially  examples  of  textiles, 
in  charge  of  assistants  under  the  heads  of  the  departments 
represented,  are  free  of  access  to  all  studemts,  and  an  excellent 
library  of  41,000  volumes  and  55,000  photographs,  covering 
every  field  of  art  and  decoration,  is  open  for  consultation  and 
study. 

Since  the  books  and  photographs  of  the  library  must  be 
used  in  the  building,  a  collection  of  twenty-eight  thousand 
lantern-slides  and  many  photographs  and  other  reproductions 
of  objects  of  art  of  all  kinds,  as  well  as  original  examples  of 
textiles,  etc.,  are  lent  to  students,  lecturers,  and  others,  under 
simple  rules  and  at  a  nominal  fee. 

Besides  these  opportunities  given  to  the  individual  worker. 


462  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

the  Museum  offers  regularly  each  year  various  courses  of 
lectures  on  general  and  special  subjects,  many  of  them  directly 
planned  for  the  student  of  art  and  design,  with  the  intention 
of  encouraging  and  stimulating  the  use  of  the  collections.  In 
this  connection  emphasis  is  laid  upon  the  courses  of  seminars, 
or  study-hours,  conducted  by  a  trained  instructor  planned  to 
give  practical  help  in  the  problems  of  design  and  color  which 
enter  into  every-day  life  and  intended  especially  for  designers, 
buyers  and  salespeople  in  shops,  and  also  for  those  of  the 
purchasing  public  who  are  interested  in  well-designed  mer- 
chandise and  its  use.  Here  the  method  of  contrasting  current 
with  Museum  examples  is  used.  These  informal  talks  are 
supplemented  by  a  special  course  of  lectures,  given  under  the 
terms  of  the  will  of  the  late  Jessie  Gillender  in  memory  of  her 
father,  Arthur  Gillender,  "for  the  benefit  of  artisans  engaged 
in  crafts  demanding  artistic  study  as  expressed  in  contents  of 
the  museum." 

The  Museum  serves  the  industrial  arts  aggressively,  also, 
in  two  ways  of  importance:  by  contact  with  factories,  shops 
and  designers;  and  by  contact  with  trade  journals  that  reach 
these  groups.  The  Associate  in  Industrial  Arts,  appointed  in 
1 91 8,  visits  factories  and  workshops,  and  makes  appointments 
with  manufacturers  and  designers  at  the  Museum.  By  keeping 
abreast  of  the  practical  requirements  of  production  methods 
and  the  current  demands  of  the  markets  in  the  art  industries 
he  seeks  to  meet  manufacturers  and  designers  on  their  own 
ground  in  search  for  ideas,  motives,  designs,  and  layouts.  As 
a  result  he  frequently  aids  in  the  preparation  of  new  material 
from  its  first  conception  to  the  final  product.  The  trade 
journals  are  provided  with  authoritative  text  and  suggestions 
for  editorial  and  other  material,  always  selected  or  prepared 
with  an  eye  to  trade  requirements;  they  are  also  kept  informed 
as  to  all  new  arrangements  of  galleries,  accessions,  special 
exhibitions,  etc.,  of  interest  to  their  respective  trades.  An 
annual  exhibition  is  held  to  show  how  the  trades  use  the 
museum  resources  and  services;  the  last  of  these  (the  sixth, 
1922)  contained  500  objects,  the  work  of  100  firms  and  indi- 


AGENCIES  IN  NEW  YORK  AND  CHICAGO      463 

viduals.  The  objects  shown  are  always  representative  of  the 
best  work  produced  in  the  various  industries.  Contact  is 
maintained  with  an  active  list  of  about  500  firms  and  individ- 
uals and  with  over  1 50  trade  journals. 

All  of  these  privileges  offered  by  the  Museum  are  easily 
obtainable  by  the  individual,  or  by  schools  or  groups  of 
people.  A  card  providing  for  them  is  issued  either  on  personal 
application  at  the  Information  Desk,  or  on  written  request 
to  the  Secretary  of  the  Museum.  In  the  case  of  personal  help 
desired,  the  application  may  be  made  to  the  Associate  in 
Industrial  Art. 


THE  ART  CENTER 

New  York  City 

The  Art  Center  was  incorporated  to  advance  the  decor- 
ative crafts  and  the  industrial  and  graphic  arts  of  America. 
The  constituent  societies  are  the  Art  Alliance  of  America, 
Art  Directors  Club,  American  Institute  of  Graphic  Arts, 
New  York  Society  of  Craftsmen,  Pictorial  Photographers  of 
America,  Society  of  Illustrators  and  The  Stowaways. 

Each  of  these  organizations  has  a  special  field  of  activity 
clearly  indicated  by  their  constitutions  and  rules  of  procedure. 
They  are  grouped  together  for  mutual  benefit.  The  Art  Center 
building,  which  is  owned  by  the  constituent  societies,  has 
six  exhibition  galleries  and  fourteen  club  rooms  or  studios. 
The  collective  interests  of  the  seven  constituent  societies  are 
cared  for  through  the  Board  of  Directors  of  the  Art  Center. 
This  Board  is  elected  from  the  membership  of  the  above 
named  organizations.  Their  combined  membership  is  over 
three  thousand.  This  membership  is  chiefly  drawn  from  the 
ranks  of  artists  allied  in  some  way  to  the  various  trades  and 
industries. 

Exhibitions,  conferences,  lectures  and  practical  demonstra- 
tions are  utilized  for  general  educational  efforts  fostering  the 
sensible  application  of  the  arts  of  design  to  the  every-day 
affairs  of  life.  Through  the  efforts  of  the  constituent  organiz- 
ations there  are  classes  in  design  and  craftsmanship  at  the 
Art  Center  building,  especial  attention  being  given  to  the 
decoration  of  textiles  and  ceramics. 

Through  exhibitions  and  conferences  special  efforts  are 
made  to  advance  all  forms  of  book  or  magazine  illustrations 
and  all  those  expressions  of  the  graphic  arts  applied  to  adver- 
tising and  modern  methods  of  publicity.  The  best  examples 
of  pictorial  photography  are  also  constantly  on  view  as  a 
means  of  encouraging  men  of  talent  interested  in  the  artistic 
possibilities  of  camera  work.  In  fact  the  Art  Center  is  intended 
as  a  rally ing-point  for  all  individuals  and  societies  having 
the  development  of  decorative  and  ornamental  design  at 


AGENCIES  IN  NEW  YORK  AND  CHICAGO      465 

heart  or  that  are  devoted  to  the  practical  application  of  Am- 
erican Art  to  the  home  life  of  Americans. 

Through  the  Art  Alliance,  artists,  art  students  and  artisans 
are  advised  and  directed  with  the  assistance  of  experts  re- 
garding their  several  studies  and  pursuits.  A  general  registry 
for  the  arts  is  constantly  consulted  in  this  society's  head- 
quarters. A  department  of  advice  and  information  is  main- 
tained and  a  bureau  for  placing  designers  in  the  various  trades 
and  industries  keeps  an  up-to-date  list  of  applicants  and  art- 
istic opportunities. 


THE  ARCHITECTURAL  LEAGUE  OF  NEW  YORK 

The  Architectural  League  of  New  York  City  is  an  organi- 
zation representative  of  the  arts,  professions  and  crafts  con- 
tributory to  the  art  of  architecture.  Membership  includes 
painters,  sculptors  and  designers  in  the  crafts.  It  has  recently 
established  a  class  of  lay  members  selected  from  among  the 
manufacturers  of  artistic  materials  and  products. 

The  League  holds  an  annual  exhibition  which  includes  not 
merely  drawings  and  photographs  of  buildings  but  sculpture, 
mural  paintings,  furniture,  lighting  fixtures,  fire-place  fittings, 
hangings,  and  fabrics  of  all  kinds,  carpets,  pottery,  tile  work 
and  wall  coverings.  To  encourage  the  crafts  and  manufactures 
and  to  emphasize  the  importance  they  have  in  the  League's 
vision  of  the  relation  of  the  divers  arts  to  architecture,  and  in 
recognition  of  the  place  the  machine  is  beginning  to  occupy 
in  the  production  of  beautiful  things  in  quantity,  a  medal  for 
excellence  of  design  and  workmanship  in  native  industrial  art 
of  rank  equal  to  those  for  architecture,  painting,  sculpture 
and  landscape  architecture  was  established  in  1920  and  is 
annually  awarded. 


ART-IN-TRADES  CLUB 

New  York  City 

The  Art-in-Trades  Club  of  New  York  City,  founded  in 
April,  1906,  is  an  association  of  men  connected  with  or  inter- 
ested in  the  art  trades.  Its  object  is:  mutual  advancement, 
social  intercourse,  and  study.  The  club  is  composed  mainly 
of  interior  decorators;  manufacturers  of  decorative  furnish- 
ings, together  with  their  designers  and  salesmen ;  also  of  rep- 
resentatives of  the  textile,  furniture,  and  fixture  industries; 
and  of  designers  and  workers  in  the  art  crafts,  such  as  wood, 
leather,  stained  glass,  metal,  etc. 

The  aims  of  the  club  are:  a  practical  study  of  art  in  trades; 
the  fostering  of  mutual  helpfulness  and  understanding;  and 
the  promotion  of  good  fellowship  among  those  working  in  the 
trades  represented.  The  club  maintains  a  club  room  and 
holds  meetings  throughout  the  season,  at  which  the  speakers 
are  specialists  in  their  respective  callings  and  at  which  dis- 
cussions of  mutual  interest  are  always  encouraged. 


SCHOOL  ART  LEAGUE  OF 
NEW  YORK  CITY 

The  School  Art  League  was  founded  in  191 1  to  foster  the 
interests  of  art  education  in  the  public  schools  of  the  City 
of  New  York  and  to  offer  opportunities  to  pupils,  teachers, 
and  the  public  for  the  study  and  discussion  of  art. 

Its  memberships  in  June,  1922,  numbered  4,114  Junior 
Members,  high-school  pupils  who  pay  ten  cents  a  term;  351 
Teacher  Members  who  pay  $1  a  year;  and  224  Annual  Mem- 
bers who  contribute  from  $5  to  1 100  toward  the  work  of  the 
League. 

The  work  of  the  League  includes  provisions  for  lectures  to 
public  school  pupils  and  teachers,  the  award  of  a  number  of 
art  school  scholarships,  the  conferring  of  medals  for  excellent 
work  in  drawing,  design  and  craftsmanship  to  public  school 
pupils,  and  maintenance  of  Saturday  classes  in  drawing.  The 
lectures  of  1921-22  had  a  total  attendance  of  22,072.  Eight 
of  these  were  given  in  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art  on 
Saturdays  for  junior  and  other  members. 

Each  of  the  industrial  art  scholarships  enables  a  talented 
boy  or  girl  graduate  of  a  city  high-school  to  have  one  year's 
training  at  a  professional  art  school  in  some  branch  of  applied 
art,  chiefly  commercial  design,  costume  illustration  or  in- 
terior decoration.  The  students  go  to  Pratt  Institute  or  to  the 
New  York  School  of  Fine  and  Applied  Art.  These  scholar- 
ships are  financed  on  a  cooperative  basis  whereby  both  of 
these  art  schools  make  a  concession  in  their  fees  and  the  re- 
maining cost  is  defrayed  half  by  entertainments  and  sales  by 
the  high-school  pupils  and  teachers,  and  half  by  the  School 
Art  League.  Nineteen  of  the  twenty-seven  city  high-schools 
are  represented  among  the  present  thirty-five  scholarship 
students.  During  the  ten  years  that  the  League  has  awarded 
these  scholarships  more  than  150  boys  and  girls  have  been 
aided.  The  majority  of  these  have  made  good  and  some  are  now 
earning  large  salaries.  Several  of  the  scholarships  have  been 
endowed,  others  are  supported  through  the  cooperation  of 


AGENCIES  IN  NEW  YORK  AND  CHICAGO      469 

the  Sorosis  Art  Committee,  the  Study  Circle,  and  by  con- 
tributions through  the  efforts  of  the  Scholarship  Committee. 
Medals  conferred  by  the  League  are  as  follows: 

(a)  The  Fine  Craftsmanship  medal,  designed  by  Victor  D. 
Brenner  in  191 1,  is  awarded  each  term  in  each  of  the  295 
workshops  of  the  elementary  schools  to  the  student  doing 
the  best  work.  More  than  seventy  of  these  medals  have  been 
endowed  through  the  cooperation  of  the  workshops.  About 
600  a  year  are  awarded. 

(b)  A  medal  given  by  the  Art-in-Trades  Club,  designed  by 
Gaetano  Ceceri  in  191 7,  is  awarded  for  excellence  in  design 
at  the  close  of  the  first  year  in  each  of  the  city  high-schools. 
Fifty-four  are  awarded  each  year. 

(c)  The  Alexander  medal,  designed  by  John  Flanagan  in 
1 91 5,  is  awarded  for  merit  in  drawing  at  the  close  of  the 
second  year  in  each  high-school.  This  medal  is  endowed  in 
memory  of  the  League's  first  President,  John  W.  Alexander. 
Fifty-four  are  awarded  each  year. 

(d)  The  Saint-Gaudens  medal  for  Fine  Draftsmanship, 
designed  by  Chester  Beach  in  191 7,  is  awarded  at  the  close 
of  the  third  year  in  each  high-school.  This  was  endowed  by 
Mrs.  Helen  Foster  Barnett.  About  40  are  awarded  each  year. 

(e)  A  competition  in  drawing  is  held  at  the  close  of  each 
term  with  a  team  of  five  students  from  each  high-school 
drawing  a  specific  subject  in  a  limited  time.  A  jury  of  prom- 
inent artists  marks  the  work  and  the  school  whose  team  se- 
cures the  highest  score  holds  the  Alexander  Medal  Trophy 
for  a  term.  Each  member  of  the  winning  team  is  awarded  a 
small  replica. 

Two  Saturday  morning  classes  in  drawing  are  maintained 
at  Washington  Irving  High  School  by  the  League,  which 
pays  the  salaries  of  the  teachers.  These  classes,  one  in  draw- 
ing from  still  life  and  the  other  from  the  draped  figure,  consist 
of  gifted  high-school  pupils  who  are  desirous  of  improving 
their  drawing  through  this  extra  training. 

The  above  activities  are  maintained  at  an  annual  cost  of 
less  than  $5,000.  All  officers  serve  without  pay. 


THE  ART  INSTITUTE  OF  CHICAGO 

For  many  years  the  Art  Institute  has  held  exhibitions  of  ap- 
plied arts,  national  in  scope.  Whenever  opportunity  offered  it 
has  shown  exhibitions  of  foreign  applied  arts.  It  is,  this  year, 
holding  an  exhibition  of  examples  of  work  from  the  Wiener 
Werkstaette.  Applied-art  exhibitions  will  also  be  held  in  con- 
nection with  the  Chicago  Architectural  Exhibition  and  the 
exhibition  of  the  Garden  Club  of  America.  Twenty-one  prizes 
amounting  to  |5i,475  are  offered  for  the  best  examples  of  mod- 
ern applied  arts  in  the  above  exhibitions. 

It  is  planned  to  hold  lectures  on  Sundays  during  the  year 
1921-22  under  the  direction  of  the  Association  of  Arts  and  In- 
dustries dealing  with  various  phases  of  industrial  art.  These 
lectures  will  deal  principally  with  the  collections  of  the  Art 
Institute  and  their  use  by  the  specific  trade  involved. 

It  is  proposed  to  link  the  industrial  art  teaching  in  the  school 
of  the  Art  Institute  with  the  industries  of  Chicago  through 
the  establishment  of  fellowships  in  the  school  to  be  endowed 
by  specific  industries.  In  entering  upon  this  arrangement  it  is 
the  hope  of  the  Institute  to  produce  one  or  more  designers 
thoroughly  trained  and  apprenticed  for  a  specific  time  to  the 
industry  supplying  the  funds  for  the  tuition  of  such  individu- 
als. It  is  possible  that  the  forwarding  of  this  plan  may  involve 
instruction  in  the  Art  School  for  part  time  and  work  in  com- 
mercial establishments  for  part  time. 

The  Institute  is  a  center  of  activity  for  the  art  clubs  and 
organizations  of  Chicago  and  its  club  rooms  are  much  used  by 
these  associations.  A  new  building  to  be  devoted  entirely  to 
the  decorative  arts  is  almost  completed  and  will  probably  be 
opened  to  the  public  before  January  ist,  1923. 


ASSOCIATION  OF  ARTS  AND  INDUSTRIES 

Chicago,  111. 

The  Association  of  Arts  and  Industries  was  formed  in 
Chicago  on  March  ist,  1922,  by  an  amalgamation  of  two 
existing  organizations — ^The  National  Art  ServiceLeague  and 
The  Alliance  of  Art  and  Industry. 

The  object  is  to  stimulate  the  application  of  art  to  the 
industrial  and  aesthetic  development  of  the  country.  It  is 
hoped  to  attain  this  end  through — (i)  acquaintance,  mutual 
understanding  and  cooperation  between  artists  and  manufac- 
turers; (2)  periodical  exhibitions  of  the  various  arts  and  their 
application  to  industry;  (3)  the  establishment  of  an  indus- 
trial art  school  in  Chicago. 

Monthly  exhibits  of  the  various  branches  of  industrial 
art  are  planned  in  the  leading  stores  of  Chicago,  for  which 
space  has  already  been  offered.  Frequent  meetings  will  be 
held  at  which  persons  eminent  in  the  arts  and  industries  will 
speak.  The  annual  exhibit  of  applied  art  at  the  Art  Institute 
will  be  held  under  the  auspices  of  the  Association. 

The  organization  includes  many  prominent  representatives 
of  the  art  industries  among  its  officers  and  is  reported  to  have 
the  earnest  support  of  manufacturers  as  well  as  of  the  Art 
Institute  of  Chicago. 


CONCLUSIONS 

This  country  finds  itself  unexpectedly  today  the  richest 
country  in  the  world.  Economic  leadership  is  forced  upon  it 
and  such  dominance  brings  with  it  the  demand  for  leadership 
in  many  other  directions.  In  many  fields  we  are  sadly  unpre- 
pared for  such  world  ascendancy  and  in  none  is  this  more  true 
than  in  the  field  of  art.  We  represent  a  strong  national  life 
with  marked  individual  force  and  characteristics,  but  it  is  a 
national  life  that  has  been  absorbed  in  the  conquest  of  material 
things  and  the  gaining  of  material  comforts.  It  has  not  yet 
paused  to  concern  itself  seriously  with  interest  in  art  or  beauty. 

We  are,  moreover,  a  nation  of  many  races  with  different 
ideals  and  tastes.  Culturally  we  are  a  mixture.  To  a  consider- 
able extent  the  various  elements  in  our  population  repre- 
sent the  aesthetic  tastes  and  habits  of  their  forebears,  leaving 
us  with  no  singleness  of  quality  in  our  ideals  and  art. 

On  the  other  hand,  our  people  represent  standards  of  living 
considerably  above  those  of  any  other  country  and  consume 
an  amount  of  goods  in  which  art  quality  has  a  recognized 
value  greatly  in  excess  of  any  other  nation.  The  demand  for 
artistic  goods,  now  large,  must  inevitably  increase.  Whether 
this  supply  is  to  be  produced  by  ourselves  or  borrowed  from 
others  depends  on  the  direction  that  our  national  culture  takes. 
Rome  borrowed  the  art  of  Greece,  The  trade-rich  cities  of 
South  America  before  the  war  decked  themselves  with  the  art 
of  Latin  Europe.  We  have  largely  built  upon  or  borrowed  our 
art  from  the  old  world.  We  do  so  today.  Whether  this  will 
continue  in  the  new  phase  of  economic  dominance  on  our  part 
and  the  sapping  of  creative  vitality  in  the  older  countries 
of  Europe  remains  to  be  seen. 

One  matter  is  clear — if  we  are  to  attain  fiillness  and  matu- 
rity in  our  national  life  we  must  inevitably  reach  the  point  of 
expressing  ourselves  artistically  as  well  as  materially,  for  no 
nation  can  attain  full  spiritual  and  intellectual  development 
until  it  comprehends  in  its  own  life  all  the  powers  of  expression 
needed  to  satisfy  its  aspirations  and  desires. 


474  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

On  the  economic  side  we  have  obviously  the  strongest  reasons 
for  endeavor  in  this  field.  At  present  we  pay  a  heavy  toll  to 
Europe  for  art  products  and  designs.  It  is  not  only  desirable 
to  save  this  outlay  but  to  gain  the  increased  value  for  our 
goods  that  higher  artistic  standards  will  bring.  The  United 
States  has  practically  but  one  market  for  the  products  of  its 
art  industries.  Paris  has  the  whole  world  for  its  market.  In  the 
future  the  expansion  of  our  trade  must  take  into  account  not 
only  the  production  of  goods  which  are  required  to  satisfy 
material  needs,  but  which  may  command  a  world  market 
because  of  their  artistic  value. 

Whether  we  borrow,  or  whether  we  create,  the  art  that  will 
minister  to  American  needs  will  be  the  art  of  the  machine. 
Only  through  quantity  production  and  the  machine  can  the 
needs  of  modern  democracy  be  met.  Consequently,  our  prob- 
lem in  artistic  expression  is  to  master  the  machine  and  in  so 
doing  to  create  art  for  the  people.  This  problem  means  finding 
expression  in  terms  appropriate  to  modern  life  through  a  ma- 
chine process  with  which  the  designer  no  longer  has  intimate 
personal  contact. 

Whether  we  continue  for  long  to  depend  upon  the  artistic 
culture  of  the  older  countries  or  whether  we  advance  to  self- 
sufficiency  depends  upon  a  number  of  elements,  of  which  the 
first  and  most  important  is  the  question  whether  our  standards 
of  public  taste  are  to  rise  to  such  an  extent  as  to  mean  an  en- 
larged demand  for  finer  things  among  our  people  as  a  whole. 
In  a  democracy  constituted  as  ours  we  cannot  expect  high 
achievements  in  art  unless  the  level  of  appreciation  is  raised 
in  the  mass.  Public  taste,  however,  can  advance  but  slowly, 
and  it  can  only  advance  through  organic  forces  that  are  natur- 
ally in  play. 

For  one  thing,  we  may  expect  the  in- 
Education  of  fluence  of  the  public  schools  to  affect 

Public  Taste  in  some  degree  the  outlook  of  the 

coming  generation.  Drawing  is  com- 
monly represented  as  a  subject  of  instruction  in  elementary 
schools  located  in  urban  communities  throughout  the  country. 


CONCLUSIONS  475 

and  instruction  in  drawing  and  color,  the  principles  of  design 
and  art  appreciation  is  generally  given  in  the  high-schools  of 
the  larger  cities. 

This  instruction  should  not  only  provide  a  foundation  for 
later  specialized  training,  but  should  also  constitute  an  element 
of  much  significance  in  the  education  of  popular  taste.  As  a 
result  of  the  influence  of  instruction  in  the  above  subjects  re- 
ceived by  a  large  portion  of  the  young  people  of  the  country 
we  have  reason  to  anticipate  in  future  years  a  considerable  ad- 
vance in  the  general  appreciation  of  artistic  matters.  The  ex- 
tent to  which  this  hope  will  be  realized  and  the  extent  to  which 
this  work  will  forward  the  evolution  of  future  designers  de- 
pends in  large  measure  upon  the  degree  to  which  such  instruc- 
tion is  carried  beyond  the  point  of  mere  training  in  drawing 
and  achieves  some  understanding  of  aesthetic  values  and  of 
the  meaning  of  art  in  daily  life. 

Our  public  monuments,  our  fine  buildings,  our  great  rail- 
road stations,  our  theatres,  our  museums  and  exhibitions  of 
fine  and  applied  art,  our  leading  department  stores  and  shops 
with  their  wealth  of  artistic  material  are  all  helping  to  develop 
public  taste.  But  these  at  present  are  all  too  few  and  too  con- 
fined to  our  large  centers  of  population.  A  compensating  fact 
in  our  national  life  and  one  that  is  a  force  of  no  mean  value  is 
the  influence  of  women's  clubs  that  are  scattered  throughout 
the  country  in  the  small  towns.  These  clubs  are  often  the  tar- 
get for  ridicule,  but  it  is  unquestionably  a  fact  that  both  in 
literature  and  in  art  they  exercise  a  very  strong  educational 
influence  in  the  development  of  taste. 

More  potent,  perhaps,  is  the  direct  influence  of  our  illus- 
trated art  magazines,  and  those  devoted  to  women's  interests, 
and  in  particular  our  graphic  advertising. 

Where  emulation  and  opportunities  for  comparison  are 
present  the  situation  moves  rapidly,  if  not  always  upward. 
Where  these  are  absent  progress  is  slow. 

Where  there  is  rivalry  and  strong  competition  to  catch  the 
eye,  as  in  the  case  of  women's  dress  or  graphic  advertising, 
the  demand  for  new  ideas,  finer  ideas,  more  striking  ideas,  is 


476  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

continuous.  This  competition  may  not  always  work  for  beauty 
in  its  fullest  sense,  but  it  furnishes  continuous  aesthetic  ex- 
periences and  on  the  whole  makes  toward  a  higher  appreci- 
ation of  the  beautiful.  In  the  case  of  women's  wear,  the  native 
feminine  instinct  seeks  constantly  for  the  most  attractive 
adornment.  Seasonal  requirements  give  opportunities  for  new 
and  fresh  effects.  The  general  mode  is  set  by  the  expensive 
and  exclusive  makers.  Imitation  follows  all  down  the  line, 
affording  at  each  economic  level  opportunities  for  individual 
choice  in  regard  to  materials,  color  and  form. 

Throughout  her  whole  life,  woman  is  thus  constantly  prac- 
ticing observation,  comparison,  discrimination  and  selection, 
— all  aesthetic  experiences — in  regard  to  her  apparel.  Funda- 
mental social  forces  are  in  play,  and  in  the  resulting  activities 
aesthetic  education  is  a  natural  and  inevitable  process.  In 
these  conditions  demand  and  supply  are  in  vigorous  reaction. 
The  whole  situation  is  in  a  ferment  and  carries  its  own  germs 
of  progress. 

On  the  other  hand,  in  the  case  of  things  within  the  household 
such  as  wall  paper,  table  china,  carpets  and  furniture,  the 
level  of  design  is  more  static  and  the  demand  for  novelty  and 
fine  quality  less  emphatic.  The  reasons  for  this  difference, 
which  is  a  difference  of  much  significance  in  the  problem  of 
applied  art,  are  several.  In  the  first  place  the  element  of  emu- 
lation is  less.  Only  the  exceptional  woman  recognizes  that  the 
room  settings  and  furnishings  of  her  home  are  as  important 
an  expression  of  personality  as  the  dress  she  wears.  Again  is 
the  fact  that  the  individual  home  is  open  to  the  inspection  of 
but  a  few.  Our  lares  and  penates  do  not  travel  down  Fifth 
Avenue  for  the  inspection  of  the  multitude,  and  opportunities 
for  observation  and  comparison  such  as  exist  in  the  case  of 
women's  dress  are  comparatively  lacking. 

Another  element  that  contributes  largely  to  the  difference 
in  the  two  situations  is  the  fact  that  our  household  furnishings 
are  relatively  permanent.  They  are  not  changed  twice  or  four 
times  a  year  and  the  need  for  novelty,  for  fresh  effects,  is  con- 
sequently not  felt  to  the  same  degree.  As  a  result  of  these  dif- 


CONCLUSIONS  477 

ferences  the  American  housewife  is  fairly  content  if  her  home 
is  comfortable,  clean  and  cheerful  and  the  household  fur- 
nishings give  evidence  of  being  "as  costly  as  the  purse  can 
buy."  All  this  leaves  us,  as  regards  a  large  portion  of  the  field 
of  applied  design,  with  lower  aesthetic  standards  and  less 
cultivated  perceptions.  The  fine  thing  at  the  top  has  here  less 
opportunity  of  effecting  the  popular  taste  through  the  normal 
operation  of  supply  and  demand  and  the  rate  of  advance  must 
be  more  gradual. 

Our  art  museums  represent  a  very  important  influence  in 
the  cultivation  of  public  taste  and  may  be  expected  in  the 
near  future  to  perform  another  service  of  perhaps  equal 
value.  Rich  collections  of  source  material  in  the  applied 
arts  are  an  essential  element  in  the  education  of  the  designer 
and  the  salesman.  A  few  of  our  museums  have  already  devel- 
oped very  considerable  collections  of  this  character.  Others 
have  made  beginnings,  while  others  still  look  with  indifference 
on  this  field.  The  possession  of  such  material,  however,  is  not 
synonymous  with  full  use  or  service.  These  latter  elements  as 
contrasted  with  mere  collection  and  exhibition  are  only  begin- 
ning to  appear  in  the  outlook  of  the  American  museum.  The 
earlier  stage  has  been  dominated  by  the  point  of  view  of  the 
archaeologist,  a  point  of  view  that  stops  with  correct  histor- 
ical arrangement  of  the  material  in  each  particular  field,  and 
aims  at  informing  and  cultivating  the  public  taste.  The  new 
aim  just  beginning  to  be  recognized  and  one  of  equal  impor- 
tance, is  that  of  service  to  the  industries,  to  the  fields  of  trade 
and  commerce  that  have  made  the  museums  possible. 

The  records  of  the  survey  show  that  our  designers  and 
manufacturers  do  not  use  the  art  museums  to  any  large  extent. 
They  have  not  acquired  the  museum  habit  and  this  is  partly 
due  to  the  fact  that  the  museums  as  a  rule  have  not  taken  ac- 
tive measures  to  reach  and  serve  the  designers.  They  have  said, 
"here  are  our  treasures,  our  doors  are  open,  come  and  take  ad- 
vantage thereof."  But  they  have  not  studied  the  designers' 
needs  or  developed  measures  to  satisfy  them.  In  an  upward 
movement  of  industrial  art  it  is  essential  that  the  museum 


478  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

become  a  live  factor.  If  it  is  to  serve  effectively,  it  must  de- 
velop within  its  organization  special  machinery  to  deal  with 
the  problem  of  the  manufacturer,  designer  and  salesman.  To 
accomplish  this  it  must  direct  its  attention  to  modern,  present- 
day  needs.  It  must  learn  about  these  needs,  and  put  forth 
active  effort  and  carefully  planned  policies  to  meet  them. 

Museum  collections  have  their  greatest  value  in  preserving 
and  presenting  what  is  finest  in  the  art  of  the  past.  But  with 
the  museum  of  tomorrow,  this  will  not  be  sufficient.  We  need 
to  know  more  about  the  fine  things  of  today,  and  it  seems  not 
too  much  to  hope  that  examples  of  high  achievement  in  our 
own  and  foreign  industrial  art  may  find  a  place,  if  only  a  tem- 
porary one,  in  our  museums. 

In  any  event,  we  need  far  more  frequent  exhibitions  of  our 
industrial  art  products  in  order  that  the  public  may  learn 
more  about  them  and  the  designer  and  manufacturer  gain 
stimulus  and  suggestion.  To  obtain  the  best  results,  the  ma- 
terial admitted  to  such  exhibitions  should  be  selected  by  per- 
sons of  recognized  artistic  taste,  and  it  should  be  exhibited 
under  conditions  that  will  attract  most  attention  to  its  aes- 
thetic quality.  In  New  York  City,  in  addition  to  the  museums, 
a  number  of  organizations  are  now  helping  to  meet  this  need — 
the  Art  Center,  the  Art-in-Trades  Club,  the  Architectural 
League,  the  Silk  Show — but  in  many  localities  the  art  museum 
is  the  agency  best  calculated  to  fulfill  these  requirements. 

One  influence  that  might  be  expected  to  educate  the  public 
taste  more  than  has  been  the  fact  is  the  arts-and-crafts  move- 
ment. This  movement  has  proceeded  haltingly  with  us  and  its 
influence  upon  standards  of  industrial  design  has  been  prac- 
tically negligible.  Quantity  production  and  distribution  have 
so  completely  dominated  consumption  with  us  that  craft 
work  has  received  little  attention  on  the  part  of  the  buying 
public.  Nor  has  the  movement  except  in  a  few  instances  en- 
gaged the  energies  of  persons  of  marked  artistic  ability.  It  has 
afforded  satisfying  and  stimulating  vocations  to  many,  but 
products  combining  fine  workmanship  and  a  high  quality  of 
design  have  been  rare.  Some  most  excellent  work  in  silver  has 


CONCLUSIONS  479 

been  achieved,  some  pottery  beautiful  in  glaze  and  decorative 
quality  and  some  jewelry  of  beauty  and  distinction  among  the 
large  quantity  produced. 

There  is  no  subject  about  which  it  is  easier  to  rhapsodize 
and  overstate  than  that  of  handicraft  work.  Ever  since  Ruskin 
and  Morris  the  principle  that  only  through  the  working  out  of 
an  idea  in  the  material  can  true  beauty  of  design  be  achieved 
has  been  held  by  many  apostles  of  art  with  the  vigor  of  a 
religion.  The  half-truth  involved  is  so  appealing  that  it  is 
often  accepted  for  the  whole.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  no  good 
design  can  be  evolved  without  an  intimate  understanding  of 
the  material  and  of  the  possibilities  and  limitations  of  the 
process  involved  in  the  finished  product.  This  does  not  mean 
that  the  designer  must  work  out  his  salvation  by  personal  exe- 
cution. It  means  he  must  thoroughly  appreciate  and  gauge  all 
the  forces  and  practical  considerations  that  bear  upon  the 
evolution  of  his  design  into  material  form.  More  than  this  on 
the  manipulative  side  we  cannot  have,  and  more  than  this  we 
do  not  need  in  the  designer  for  the  machine. 

Long  before  the  industrial  revolution  and  the  age  of  the 
machine  the  designer  and  the  craftsman  had  begun  to  separate 
their  functions.  The  brilliant  French  ornemanistes  of  the 
eighteenth  century  who  have  left  such  a  remarkable  record  in 
the  furniture,  ceramics,  textiles  and  wall  papers  of  their  time, 
were  often  not  craftsmen  but  designers  who  understood  the 
possibilities  and  requirements  of  the  crafts. 

Notwithstanding  all  this  the  arts-and-crafts  movement  in 
our  country  needs  to  be  nurtured  and  encouraged.  It  should 
become  a  vital  element  in  our  artistic  evolution.  Ideally  its 
creations  should  play  the  role  of  the  poetry  of  industrial  art 
where  imagination  has  freer  range  than  in  the  case  of  the  prose 
of  the  machine  product.  But  it  should  be  encouraged  only  on 
the  condition  that  it  produce  art  and  not  merely  craftwork. 

The  only  country  that  has  made  a  real  connection  between 
handicraft  work  and  industrial  production  would  seem  to  be 
Germany.  The  policy  consistently  pursued  for  many  years  in 
that  country  of  supporting  industrial  art  schools  in  which  a 


48o  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

liberal  amount  of  handicraft  training  found  place  had  resulted 
before  the  war  in  making  craft  work  so  familiar  and  so  readily 
obtainable  that  such  products  had  gained  large  recognition 
and  were  widely  sought  for.  It  was  a  case  of  supply  developing 
demand  with  the  result  of  introducing  very  generally  a  new 
order  of  taste. 

The  reaction  upon  industrial  production  was  very  extensive, 
and  wall  decorations,  furniture,  lighting  fixtures,  ornamental 
hardware  and  pottery  in  the  German  home,  hotels,  public  and 
commercial  buildings  soon  reflected  the  new  order. 

One  notable  fact  about  this  development  was  that  not  alone 
were  exceptional  and  expensive  products  created,  but  homes 
and  establishments  of  moderate  pretensions  were  affected  by 
the  new  spirit  and  made  use  of  the  new  material. 

Another  factor  of  much  importance  in  this  matter  of  de- 
veloping public  taste  is  the  education  of  the  retail  salesman 
dealing  with  artistic  goods.  It  is  he  who  usually  exercises  the 
largest  influence  upon  the  individual  purchaser,  and  upon  his 
possession  or  lack  of  taste  and  knowledge  often  depends  the 
question  of  whether  the  fine  thing  or  the  commonplace  thing 
is  bought.  To  quote  from  the  Journal  of  the  English  Design 
and  Industries  Association,  "Given  an  educated  and  specially 
trained  race  of  distributors  they  would  leaven  the  whole  lump, 
working  backward  on  the  producer  and  forward  on  the  public." 

New  York  City  has  developed  an  admirable  agency  to  effect 
the  artistic  education  of  the  Salesman  in  the  Art-in-Trades 
Club,  and  opportunities  would  seem  to  exist  in  every  city  of 
any  size  for  the  organization  of  associations  on  similar  lines 
or  at  least  for  developing  somewhat  similar  educational  fea- 
tures through  existing  organizations. 

Another  element  essential  for  rising 
Part  of  the  standards  in  the  art  industries  is  the 

Manufacturer         degree  to  which  manufacturers  in- 
creasingly  recognize   the   fact   that 
artistry  in  their  products  is  a  commercial  asset.  Such  recogni- 
tion is  true  today  of  but  a  small  fraction  of  American  produc- 
ers. Its  extent  varies  in  degree  in  the  different  art  trades,  but 


CONCLUSIONS  481 

taken  as  a  whole  it  can  hardly  be  denied  that  American  manu- 
facturers are  concerned  comparatively  little  with  the  effort 
to  make  really  fine  things.  It  is  true  that  a  large  majority 
employ  designers.  These  enable  an  acceptable  and  marketable 
quality  to  be  given  to  the  products,  but  serious  effort  toward 
the  creating  of  more  and  more  beautiful  things  is  rare. 

The  common  attitude  in  many  of  the  art  industries  is  that 
it  is  needless  to  be  troubled  about  finer  designs,  because  the 
public  buys  what  is  offered.  In  each  trade  it  is  left  to  the  pro- 
gressive manufacturers  and  those  dealing  with  the  upper 
grade  of  consuming  taste  to  realize  and  work  upon  the  prin- 
ciple that  in  the  art  industries  the  supply  largely  creates  the 
demand;  to  realize  that  these  industries  represent  a  field  that 
is  not  limited  strictly,  like  boots  and  shoes  or  hardware,  but 
deals  with  a  market  which  is  always  extensible  provided  the 
wares  offered  are  increasingly  attractive. 

The  genius  of  America  in  industry  is  quantity  production. 
This  inevitably  makes  towards  standardization  of  form  and 
means  that  in  the  large  bulk  of  our  products  we  must  always 
expect  limitations  in  variety  as  well  as  limitations  in  quality 
of  taste.  To  raise  the  artistic  level  of  this  great  middle  field  is 
our  main  problem.  The  richness  and  extent  of  our  national  life 
will  always  provide  an  upper  margin  of  fine  taste  and  demand 
and  this  margin  may  be  relied  on  to  support  the  production  of 
continuously  finer  and  more  beautiful  things.  It  is  largely 
through  the  opportunities  for  progress  and  achievements  thus 
presented  that  the  whole  situation  will  be  influenced  and  ad- 
vanced. We  must  reconcile  ourselves  to  the  fact  that  industry 
will  of  necessity  always  be  divided  and  differentiated  as  re- 
gards its  grades  of  merchandise  and  that  the  skirmish  line  of 
advancing  standards  must  to  a  large  extent  be  carried  forward 
by  the  comparative  few  in  each  branch  of  industry  that  cater 
to  the  best  in  consuming  taste. 

Indications  that  increasing  attention  is  being  paid  to  this 
middle  field  of  production  are  apparent  in  Europe.  France  is 
evidently  determined  to  make  her  industrial  arts  play  a  larger 
part  in  the  world's  market  not  only  in  articles  of  luxury  as 


482  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

heretofore  but  in  simpler  and  less  expensive  products.  Her 
thoughtful  manufacturers,  her  school  men  and  artists  are 
united  to  develop  French  applied  art  that  shall  be  an  expres- 
sion of  modern  taste  and  that  shall  not  only  form  a  larger 
feature  in  her  export  trade  but  shall  minister  to  the  simpler 
needs  of  her  own  people.  A  great  International  Exhibition 
of  Modern  Decorative  and  Industrial  Arts  is  to  be  held  in 
Paris  in  1 924  and  already  the  French  designers  are  searching 
for  motives  that  shall  give  the  key  to  the  national  exhibits. 

In  Switzerland  and  England  also  the  effort  indicated  both 
in  schools  and  in  exhibitions  is  towards  the  development  of 
better  designs  for  the  common  grades  of  manufactured  prod- 
ucts. The  pre-war  situation  in  Germany  has  already  been 
touched  upon  and  the  flood  of  textile  and  other  designs  that 
have  passed  into  this  country  in  the  past  two  years  indicates 
that  the  German  designers  are  awake  to  the  opportunities 
afforded  by  our  standard  manufactures  and  determined  to 
have  a  share  in  them. 

One  need  in  this  complex  situation  is  the  enactment  of  a 
law  that  will  protect  designs  from  being  copied  or  stolen.  As 
a  nation  we  find  our  designs  and  ideas  in  the  art  industries,  not 
by  originating,  but  by  copying.  Such  a  practice  checks  prog- 
ress and  advancement  in  quality.  It  penalizes  the  progressive 
and  forward-looking  manufacturer.  A  method  of  legal  protec- 
tion of  designs  that  will  be  simple,  inexpensive,  and  effective 
in  operation  is  unquestionably  a  great  need  in  the  situation.  A 
copyright  law  formulated  by  the  Design  Registration  League 
is  shortly  to  be  brought  before  Congress  and  it  is  to  be  hoped 
that  it  may  present  a  solution  of  this  very  important  question. 

Finally,  we  must  have  better  designers.  Not  that  we  have 
not  good  designers  in  the  art  industries  today,  but  we  have 
not  enough  of  the  highest  training  or  capacity  to  meet  the  ad- 
vancing demand.  Our  manufacturers  in  certain  industries  go 
to  France  and  other  countries  for  their  best  designs  not  be- 
cause they  can  thus  obtain  them  more  cheaply,  not  even 
because  of  the  prestige  of  Paris,  but  because  they  can  find 
there  better  designs. 


CONCLUSIONS  483 

What  can  we  do  more  effectively  to 
Designers  produce  our  own  high  grade  designers  ? 

Before  endeavoring  to  answer  this 
question  it  may  be  well  to  review  the  methods  by  which  de- 
signs, outside  of  those  for  the  printing  arts,  are  obtained  for 
industrial  use,  A  certain  proportion,  now  a  small  one  in  most 
industries,  are  obtained  by  purchase  in  Europe.  Another  por- 
tion, in  certain  industries  still  quite  large,  are  obtained  by 
copying  European  examples.  The  remainder  are  developed 
by  designers  in  this  country.  This  latter  supply  comes  through 
three  channels:  (a)  a  staff  of  designers  connected  with  the  pro- 
ducing establishment;  (b)  commercial  design  studios  some- 
times producing  for  many  different  fields  but  often  specializ- 
ing upon  designs  for  a  particular  trade;  (c)  free-lance  designers. 

The  staff  organization  of  designers  within  the  establish- 
ment, headed  by  a  man  of  exceptional  artistic  and  practical 
ability,  affords  a  direct  opportunity  for  the  progressive  em- 
ployer to  develop  a  high  standard  of  design  in  his  own  prod- 
uct. The  limitations  of  this  plan  come  from  the  fact  that  in  the 
industries  where  the  demand  for  output  is  large  and  varied, 
few,  if  any,  establishments  can  afford  to  maintain  a  designing 
staff  large  enough  to  supply  the  needed  variety  of  new  ideas. 

Whether  a  design  staff  be  maintained  in  the  establishment 
or  not,  the  character  of  the  design  that  issues  in  the  material 
product  is  dependent  first  of  all  upon  some  person  in  the 
establishment  who  furnishes  the  key  or  motive  for  new  de- 
signs. This  person  has  rarely  received  training  in  an  art  school. 
He  has  generally  developed  through  practical  experience  in 
the  business.  But  to  be  successful  in  any  large  way  he  must 
be  a  man  of  keen  observation,  appreciative  of  artistic  quanti- 
ties, of  fertile  imagination,  and  sound  judgment.  Such  persons 
are  sometimes  members  of  the  firm,  sometimes  managers  and 
sometimes,  but  rarely,  head  designers  .They  influence  the  qual- 
ity of  designs  at  times  by  direct  suggestion,  at  times  merely 
by  the  power  of  selection.  In  the  textile  trade  they  are  called 
stylers,  but  whatever  may  be  their  position  they  are  always 
present  and  are  in  truth  the  super-designers,  those  who  give 


484  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

the  key  and  trend  to  the  new  creations.  These  men  are  true 
products  of  the  country's  civilization  and  evolve  in  much  the 
same  way  as  leaders  in  finance  or  business  or  engineering. 
They  are  more  or  less  independent  of  schools  and  find  their 
place  through  inherent  strength  and  talent.  It  is  evident  that 
upon  the  quality  and  numberof  such  persons  that  our  civiliza- 
tion can  develop  and  support,  depends  to  a  large  extent  the 
future  of  American  industrial  art. 

In  certain  industries  the  commercial  design  studio  aims  to 
meet  the  limitation  of  a  producing  establishment  staff  by 
maintaining  an  organization  large  enough  to  comprehend 
many  special  abilities  which  supply  the  needs  of  many  estab- 
lishments. In  the  field  of  graphic  advertising  such  studios 
have  attained  a  remarkable  growth  and  represent  one  of  the 
main  sources  through  which  illustrative  advertising  matter  is 
supplied  to  the  trade.  In  relation  to  printed  silks  and  cottons 
and  wall  papers  they  have  as  yet  reached  only  a  meagre  de- 
velopment and,  on  the  whole,  have  hardly  obtained  larger 
recognition  than  that  given  to  free-lance  artists.  The  influence 
of  such  studios  upon  the  standards  of  American  designs  and 
their  place  in  the  commercial  world  depend  largely  upon  the 
character  of  the  men  at  the  head.  Under  men  who  possess 
great  artistic  and  practical  ability  as  well  as  high  ethical  stand- 
ards, such  studios  in  the  near  future  may  play  a  leading  part 
in  the  development  of  industrial  art  in  America  and  may  come 
to  occupy  the  position  that  they  hold  in  Europe.  Under  in- 
ferior leadership  they  may  mean  simply  the  exploitation  of  a 
staff  of  poorly  remunerated  designers. 

In  a  large  sense,  the  commercial  studio  of  design  bears  a 
striking  resemblance  to  the  craft  workshop  of  the  guild  period 
of  industry.  In  such  a  workshop  the  master  craftsman  was 
also  the  master  merchant.  He  bought  his  own  raw  material, 
transformed  it  in  his  shop  with  the  aid  of  a  few  journeymen 
workmen  and  one  or  two  apprentices,  and  finally  sold  the 
finished  product  in  the  market.  In  no  other  period  in  the  de- 
velopment of  industry  has  the  apprentice  had  a  natural  place 
save  in  this.  Here  in  the  small  shop,  with  its  stable  conditions, 


CONCLUSIONS  485 

it  was  not  only  to  the  master's  interest  to  impart  the  best 
possible  training  to  the  apprentice,  but  he  was  placed  in  the 
best  possible  position  to  accomplish  this.  These  conditions 
have  disappeared  from  modern  industry.  The  master  mer- 
chant is  no  longer  the  master  craftsman.  He  has  removed  from 
the  shop  to  the  office  and  it  is  no  longer  to  the  personal  interest 
of  his  skilled  successors  in  the  workshop  to  spend  time  upon 
the  training  of  the  novice.  The  design  studio,  however,  almost 
reproduces  these  conditions  of  the  older  day.  The  head  of  such 
a  studio  is  both  the  master  craftsman  and  the  master  mer- 
chant. His  raw  material  consists  of  ideas.  Through  skill  and 
knowledge  these  are  transformed  and  materialized  to  meet 
the  requirements  of  modern  production.  These  resultant 
commodities  he  sells  as  master  merchant  in  the  market.  Such 
a  studio  presents  almost  the  same  opportunity  for  training  as 
that  of  the  old-time  craftshop  of  the  guild. 

Presided  over  by  a  man  superior  in  practical  capacity  and 
in  technical  knowledge  to  those  generally  available  for  school 
instruction,  a  man  who  necessarily  comes  to  know  the  latent 
capacities  as  well  as  the  limitations  of  his  workers,  there  is 
presented  an  opportunity  of  real  guidance  and  training  not 
surpassed  surely,  if  equalled,  in  the  art  schools.  Such  studios 
under  favorable  conditions  may  thus  become  very  important 
training  schools  for  the  development  of  young  talent.  To  ac- 
complish this,  leadership  of  high  intelligence,  artistic  ability, 
and  practical  knowledge  is  needed  as  well  as  far-seeing  and 
enlightened  self-interest. 

Free-lance  designers  furnish  a  large  fraction  of  the  designs 
used  in  several  industries,  notably  in  some  of  the  branches  of 
the  textile  trade,  in  the  manufacture  of  wall  paper,  and  par- 
ticularly in  the  case  of  commercial  artists  producing  advertis- 
ing matter.  Conditions  in  the  last-named  field,  however,  are 
radically  difi^erent  from  those  of  the  manufacturing  industries 
and  have  been  dealt  with  separately  under  the  study  of  the 
printing  trade.  The  following  remarks  apply  only  to  the  man- 
ufacturing trades. 

Free-lance  designers,  constituted  very  largely  of  young  per- 


486  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

sons  who  have  had  various  degrees  of  art-school  training, 
represent  a  large  amount  of  real  and  latent  artistic  ability.  As 
a  body,  however,  they  are  launched  upon  a  sea  on  which  they 
obtain  little  guidance.  Having  received  little  or  no  training  in 
the  special  requirements  of  production  in  the  art  schools,  they 
are  obliged  to  pick  up  such  knowledge  as  best  they  may.  The 
strongest  and  most  capable  finally  succeed  and  obtain  indi- 
vidual recognition,  but  the  great  number,  without  systematic, 
orderly  direction  lead  a  precarious  existence. 

It  is  true  that  many  manufacturers  welcome  the  free-lance 
artists  as  an  institution  and  consider  their  existence  an  easy 
solution  to  the  problem  of  obtaining  designs.  This  attitude 
rests  upon  the  fact  that  a  plentiful  supply  of  material  is 
brought  to  hand  for  selection  and  is  obtainable  at  moderate 
and  sometimes  extremely  low  prices.  In  quality,  however,  this 
supply  is  to  a  large  extent  mediocre  and  only  in  small  part  suit- 
able for  manufacturing  purposes.  To  be  sure,  a  large  variety 
of  motives  are  presented  in  this  way,  many  of  which  are  novel 
and  some  of  which  are  valuable,  and  by  the  purchase  of  such  ma- 
terial many  establishments  avoid  either  the  expense  of  a  design 
staff  or  the  higher  costs  of  purchasing  in  a  high-grade  commer- 
cial studio.  As  a  system  of  production  and  supply,  however, 
this  large  dependence  upon  free-lance  artists  is  not  one  that 
makes  for  advancing  standards  and  it  is  unquestionably  one, 
on  the  other  hand,  that  is  extremely  wasteful  of  artistic  talent. 

The  true  significance  of  the  present  situation  is  probably 
that  of  a  necessary  transitional  stage  towards  something  more 
stable  and  organically  sound  as  a  method  of  supply.  In  Eu- 
rope, particularly  in  Paris,  commercial  studios  supplement  to 
a  large  extent  the  work  of  design  staffs  in  producing  estab- 
lishments. They  are  recognized  institutions  maintained  by 
persons  of  marked  ability  with  high  standards  both  artistic 
and  ethical  and  they  play  a  large  part  in  the  development  of 
designers.  It  is  difficult  to  see  how  the  standards  in  the  trades 
using  outside  designers  can  approach  those  of  Europe  until 
we  have  developed  an  equally  stable  and  progressive  system 
of  design  production  and  supply. 


CONCLUSIONS  487 

In  whatever  relation  he  works,  the 
Training  of  problem  of  the  designer  still  remains. 

Designers  In  spite  of  the  subordinate  role  that 

he  sometimes  plays,  it  is  to  him  that 
we  must  look  for  the  final  expression  of  industrial  design  and 
upon  his  talent  and  capacity  that  we  must  largely  depend  for 
the  realization  of  beauty  in  our  art  products.  For  his  devel- 
opment under  present  conditions,  it  is  evident  that  we  must 
depend  at  least  in  part  upon  training  furnished  by  the  schools. 

At  the  present  time  only  a  minority  of  designers  in  the  art 
industries  have  been  so  trained.  Outside  the  field  of  commer- 
cial illustration  in  the  printing  industry  data  were  obtained 
by  the  survey  as  to  the  training  of  902  designers.  Of  these  only 
328  received  training  in  day  art  schools  or  some  form  of  tech- 
nical or  industrial  school  and  574  had  been  trained  in  com- 
mercial practice.  Many  of  the  latter  group  had  attended 
evening  art  classes. 

Before  facing  the  question  of  school  training  it  may  be  well 
to  refer  to  European  practices  in  the  matter  of  provisions  for 
training  designers.  In  France,  England,  Germany,  and  Aus- 
tria, there  exist  unified  systems  of  applied-art  schools  scattered 
throughout  these  countries,  which  to  a  certain  extent  lead  up 
to  central  schools  at  the  capital  or  other  important  centers. 
Such  schools  receive  aid  from  both  the  central  and  local  gov- 
ernments. The  local  schools  permi  t  large  numbers  to  be  reached, 
and  in  a  sense  they  serve  to  cultivate  special  talent,  which 
then  oftentimes  seeks  the  advanced  work  of  the  central  schools. 
For  admission  to  the  higher  schools,  completion  of  the  local 
school  course  is  sometimes  requisite,  in  other  cases  examina- 
tions are  required. 

In  some  of  these  countries,  more  particularly  in  the  case  of 
England  and  France,  such  schools  are  frequently  inspected  by 
government  officials  or  committees  consisting  of  individuals 
of  the  highest  ability  in  various  fields  of  fine  and  applied  art, 
and  the  results  of  these  inspections  are  a  very  important  fac- 
tor in  modifying  and  advancing  the  work  of  the  schools. 

Besides  the  general  art  schools  there  exist  in  many  of  the 


488  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

countries  of  Europe  special  schools  devoting  themselves  to  a 
particular  field,  such  as  printing,  furniture,  ceramics,  textiles, 
or  laces  and  embroideries.  These  schools  often  deal  largely 
with  the  technical  side  of  production  but  instruction  in  design 
is  always  given. 

In  these  schools  of  applied  art  one  is  likely  to  find  small 
classes.  The  American  point  of  view  that  insists  upon  large 
numbers  as  the  first  criterion  of  a  successful  institution  is  not 
accepted  in  Europe,  where  quality  of  performance  is  regarded 
as  the  important  end  and  numbers  are  a  secondary  consider- 
ation. 

Taken  in  the  large,  the  main  factors  of  advantage  that  stand 
out  in  the  European  art-school  situation  as  compared  with 
our  own,  may  perhaps  be  summed  up  as  follows :  first,  a  better 
system  in  the  selection  of  student  material,  at  least  for  the 
higher  schools;  second,  supervision  and  inspection  of  classes 
by  a  central  authority;  third,  better  quality  of  instructors  as 
regards  culture  and  training;  fourth,  frequency  of  small  classes. 

Our  own  art-school  situation  is  in 
American  Art  marked  contrast  to  that  of  Europe. 

Schools  We  have  but  one  notable  case  of  a 

school  of  applied  art  under  state  ad- 
ministration, although  several  other  institutions  receive  finan- 
cial support  from  state  and  city.  Our  remaining  schools  repre- 
sent a  variety  of  conditions.  Some  are  on  endowed  foundations, 
some  are  connected  with  museums,  some  with  colleges,  and 
some  are  conducted  under  private  auspices.  That  a  democ- 
racy should  develop  and  support  its  own  schools  when  their 
need  is  manifest  would  seem  to  be  a  sound  principle,  and  the 
time  is  surely  not  far  distant  when  schools  of  applied  art  sup- 
ported by  public  funds  will  be  called  for  in  each  of  our  large 
cities.  It  is,  however,  a  far  cry  to  an  efficient  system  of  state 
and  city  supported  schools,  and  much  farther  to  that  of  a 
great  national  school  so  often  suggested  as  a  panacea  for  all 
our  difficulties.  Whatever  the  future  possibilities  of  such  a 
system,  it  is  evident  that  for  the  present  we  must  build  upon 
what  we  have,  and  it  is  not  unlikely  that  the  variety  repre- 


CONCLUSIONS  489 

sented  by  our  present  schools,  and  their  large  dependence 
upon  private  initiative,  will  be  found  as  well  calculated  to  for- 
ward our  needs  as  a  more  formal  and  paternalistic  system  of 
government  schools. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  to  be  seriously  questioned  whether 
we  need  more  schools  in  this  field.  We  undoubtedly  need 
schools  that  function  better,  and  in  some  cases  different  kinds 
of  schools,  but  as  to  number,  it  is  probable  that  we  now  have 
more  than  sufficient. 

The  trade  studies  show  that  special  training  provisions  not 
now  existing  are  called  for  in  only  a  few  directions.  Such  pro- 
visions are  needed  in  the  case  of  the  costume  trades,  for  de- 
signers for  printed  textiles  and  for  fine  jewelry.  Development 
of  textile  school  training  for  designers  of  woven  pattern  tex- 
tiles is  also  indicated  as  a  need  of  the  near  future.  In  other 
fields  the  advance  of  standards  depends  on  developing  a  higher 
order  of  taste  on  the  part  of  the  buying  public  and  upon  the 
readiness  of  manufacturers  to  invest  their  products  with  finer 
artistry  rather  than  upon  new  school  provisions. 

Modifications  of  the  training  now  given  in  many  of  our 
schools  in  the  direction  of  more  specific  instruction  and  with 
greater  reference  to  commercial  requirements  will  at  least 
afford  a  sound  preparation  for  graduates  expecting  to  enter 
upon  practical  work. 

We  must  take  into  account  in  this  connection  the  number 
of  designers  needed  to  supply  the  various  industries.  Obvi- 
ously it  would  be  a  mistake  to  set  up  machinery  to  train  a 
large  number  of  workers  where  the  field  can  absorb  but  a  few. 
Outside  the  cities  of  New  York,  Boston,  Philadelphia,  Provi- 
dence, Cleveland,  and  Chicago,  and  certain  local  centers  of 
production,  not  only  is  there  little  in  the  way  of  school  pro- 
vision for  training  designers  for  the  manufacturing  industries 
but  there  is  very  little  in  the  local  situation  which  justifies  the 
organization  of  specialized  courses  of  training.  The  school  of 
applied  arts  can  reach  its  full  development  only  where  the  de- 
mand of  the  consumer  is  being  actively  responded  to  by  the 
work  of  the  designer  and  the  manufacturer  and  where  at  the 


490  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

same  time  it  has  at  its  disposal  comprehensive  and  inspiring 
collections  of  source  material  in  the  way  of  museums,  exhibi- 
tions, and  commercial  displays. 

On  the  other  hand  it  would  seem  to  be  true  that  no  one  type 
of  central  school  is  calculated  to  take  care  of  all  the  elements 
in  the  problem.  The  needs  of  the  different  branches  of  the  art 
industries  are  so  varied,  so  distinctive  as  to  nature  and  extent 
of  training  required,  so  specialized  in  dependence  upon  tech- 
nical knowledge,  that  there  would  seem  far  greater  chance  of 
meeting  these  needs  by  a  series  of  special  schools  or  of  special 
classes  connected  with  various  types  of  schools,  than  by  any 
one  institution. 

Taken  as  a  whole  it  seems  clear  that  a  comprehensive  sys- 
tem of  applied  art  schools  calculated  to  function  most  effect- 
ively under  our  conditions  would  consist  of  a  number  of  gen- 
eral schools  where  a  sound  basis  of  culture  and  skill  may  be 
developed  that  will  serve  as  a  foundation  for  any  field  of  prac- 
tical design,  supplemented  by  a  number  of  special  schools  or 
classes  that  will  allow  students  to  advance  further  in  the  par- 
ticular requirements  of  certain  art  industries.  For  the  sup- 
port of  the  first  type  of  school,  state,  city  and  private  funds 
and  private  initiative  may  be  relied  upon.  For  the  latter,  it 
would  seem  apparent  that  financial  cooperation  on  the  part  of 
manufacturers  is  needed.  The  requirements  for  such  training 
are  too  specialized  and  too  limited  in  extent  to  warrant  support 
solely  by  the  agencies  at  hand,  and  for  the  development  of 
such  special  training  it  would  seem  clear  that  manufacturers 
must  face  the  necessity  of  practical  financial  cooperation. 

Such  cooperation  might  take  a  number  of  forms.  It  might 
be  supplied  by  the  donation  of  special  equipment  on  the  part 
of  employers,  by  contributions  for  the  salaries  of  special  in- 
structors, or  by  liberal  provisions  for  scholarships.  This  latter 
element  is  at  present  represented  in  our  art  schools  in  very 
meagre  fashion.  Three  of  our  schools  receive  fairly  liberal  gifts 
of  state  funds  that  are  applied  in  this  form.  But  in  only  a  few 
cases  are  scholarships  from  manufacturers  or  the  public  de- 
veloped in  any  substantial  degree.  This  form  of  support  if  care- 


CONCLUSIONS  491 

fully  planned  and  of  fairly  permanent  character,  and  partic- 
ularly if  competitive  or  selective  tests  are  brought  to  bear  as 
to  the  beneficiaries  can  unquestionably  become  a  very  im- 
portant element  in  furthering  advanced  instruction  in  this  field. 

In  certain  industries  the  establishment  of  one  or  two  scholar- 
ships for  a  year's  study  and  travel  abroad  to  be  awarded  to 
specially  promising  graduates  would  be  likely  to  return  very 
positive  benefits. 

It  is  evident  that  all  these  forms  of  cooperation  are  much 
needed.  Our  schools  taken  as  a  whole  have  gone  about  as  far 
as  they  can  by  themselves.  If  they  are  to  advance  beyond  this 
point  they  will  need  assistance  from  the  manufacturers  liable 
to  make  use  of  their  graduates. 

To  bring  about  such  cooperation  on  a  systematic  basis, 
trade  relations  with  the  whole  field  of  art  education  need  to  be 
developed  and  organized. 

Trade  associations  are  slow  to  take  action  in  matters  that 
seem  far  removed  from  the  everyday  field  of  business  and  re- 
quire a  considerable  period  of  time  for  fulfillment.  While  indi- 
viduals may  be  convinced,  united  action  is  difficult.  To  incite 
such  cooperation  and  to  further  the  study  of  practical  measures 
it  is  possible  that  a  committee  developed  by  an  organization 
more  used  to  dealing  with  other  than  purely  trade  questions, 
such  as  a  chamber  of  commerce  or  merchants'  association, 
might  perhaps  be  helpful.  Such  a  committee  should  contain 
appointed  representatives  of  the  trade  associations  most  con- 
cerned with  the  problem  of  applied  design  and  should  be  com- 
posed of  persons  with  an  intelligent  outlook  upon  the  situa- 
tion and  earnestly  interested  in  its  improvement. 

This  idea  might  well  be  carried  further  in  a  number  of  our 
larger  cities.  In  most  of  our  cities  the  forces  that  operate  in 
the  field  of  industrial  art  are  in  no  way  coordinated  though  the 
situation  varies  in  different  centers.  Conditions  in  New  York 
are  in  marked  contrast  with  those  in  Chicago.  In  the  latter 
city  with  the  recognized  position  occupied  by  the  Art  Insti- 
tute and  the  new  Association  of  Arts  and  Industries,  the  field 
is  comparatively  well  unified.  In  New  York  City  the  situation 


492  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

in  so  far  as  concerns  schools,  museums,  trade  associations  and 
other  organizations  is  strikingly  lacking  in  unity. 

No  one  central  body  with  authoritative  status  exists  to  co- 
ordinate and  further  the  work  of  these  various  agencies.  Under 
these  conditions  there  seems  every  reason  to  believe  that  an 
organization  patterned  on  lines  somewhat  similar  to  those  of 
the  British  Institute  of  Industrial  Art  or  the  Design  in  Indus- 
tries Association  would  be  of  much  value. 

Such  an  organization  might  be  national  or  local  in  its  scope 
and  could  well  address  itself  to  all  measures  calculated  "to 
raise  and  maintain  the  standards  of  excellence  in  works  of  in- 
dustrial art"  particularly  such  as  look  towards  developing 
greater  cooperation  between  trade  associations,  schools,  mu- 
seums, designers  and  art  workers. 

While  dealing  with  the  general  subject  of  school  organiza- 
tion, the  important  office  of  the  evening  school  must  not  be 
overlooked.  These  schools  play  at  present  a  very  important 
part  in  furthering  the  education  of  young  workers  in  the  field 
of  industrial  art  and  from  the  nature  of  the  case  they  must 
continue  to  be  an  essential  factor. 

The  present  large  need  in  such  schools  is  for  the  organization 
of  courses  in  special  branches  of  applied  design  related  to  the 
local  industrial  situation  in  addition  to  the  general  courses  in 
drawing  that  often  represent  the  only  art  instruction  given  in 
this  field  in  many  cities.  There  is  need  also  for  greater  attention 
to  the  quality  of  instructors  placed  in  charge  of  these  courses. 

In  order  to  attract  the  right  kind  of  material,  it  is  necessary 
that  fully  as  much  care  should  be  exercised  in  the  selection  of 
persons  of  superior  ability  and  experience  for  instructors  in 
these  classes  as  in  the  case  of  day  schools. 

Among  the  special  problems  confronting  our  schools  of 
applied  art,  the  fact  cannot  be  overlooked  that  we  need  a 
higher  quality  of  youth  in  these  schools.  Successful  careers 
in  the  field  of  art  require  talent,  and  some  promise  or  indica- 
tion of  special  capacity  should  be  exacted  from  those  admitted. 
We  need  better  opportunities  for  selection  and  better  meth- 
ods of  selection  of  student  material.  The  architect  is  today  the 


CONCLUSIONS  493 

best  educated  and  most  broadly  cultivated  of  workers  in  the 
field  of  applied  design.  He  has  had  the  benefit  of  an  extended 
training,  involving  a  broad,  cultural  scope.  Moreover,  in  the 
United  States  he  represents  a  group  in  which  social  and  intel- 
lectual selection  has  played  a  considerable  part.  We  need 
something  more  approximating  to  this  situation  in  our  educa- 
tion in  the  applied  arts. 

One  consideration  that  affects  the  quality  of  American 
youth  entering  upon  applied-art  education  is  the  essentially 
modern  quarrel  between  the  fine  arts  and  the  applied  arts. 
The  idea  that  the  fine  arts  as  represented  by  painting  and 
sculpture  are  something  superior  to  the  applied  arts  and  that 
their  practice  is  a  matter  of  greater  dignity  is  an  attitude  that 
persists  tenaciously.  There  is  still  a  vast  difference  in  the  ap- 
peal to  young  persons  as  between  the  career  of  a  painter  or 
sculptor  and  that  of  a  designer.  Even  in  schools  where  courses 
in  both  the  fine  and  the  applied  arts  are  given  the  school  au- 
thorities are  very  often  found  influencing  talented  students 
toward  painting  and  sculpture  and  away  from  the  study  of 
industrial  art.  We  are  only  slowly  coming  to  recognize  the  true 
meaning  of  the  applied  arts  in  our  national  life.  We  are  only 
gradually  coming  to  recognize  that  art  is  fine  not  because  of  a 
particular  medium,  but  when  the  expression  of  line,  mass,  and 
color  is  fine  and  beautiful,  whether  this  be  in  a  painting  or  a 
rug,  and  that  art  is  not  fine  when  this  expression  is  poor  and 
commonplace,  whether  the  medium  be  sculptured  bronze  or  a 
piece  of  furniture. 

To  obtain  better  student  material  in  our  art  schools  we  also 
need  not  only  higher  material  rewards  for  designers  but  a  more 
recognized  and  dignified  status.  With  us  the  designer  has 
practically  no  status  other  than  that  of  a  worker  in  the  indus- 
tries. In  Europe  he  is  regarded  as  an  artist  and  occupies  a 
dignified  position  in  the  community. 

When  we  gain  greater  recognition  of  the  importance  and 
meaning  of  the  applied  arts  we  can  perhaps  hope  for  better 
methods  of  selecting  our  student  material.  At  present  we  must 
depend  in  this  matter  upon  our  leading  schools  where  the  de- 


494  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

mand  is  greater  than  the  capacity  to  apply  such  methods  as 
will  gradually  raise  the  artistic  quality  of  the  entrants. 

Furthermore,  we  need  more  intensive  and  more  thorough 
training  in  most  of  our  art  schools.  Into  this  problem  enters 
the  quality  of  the  instructing  staff.  In  manyofour  schools  the 
instructors  receive  but  modest  compensation.  They  are  as  a 
body  earnest  and  devoted  but  not  always  talented  and  often- 
times lacking  in  experience  and  culture. 

This  situation  can  only  gradually  change  as  the  value  of 
school  training  becomes  more  fully  recognized  and  the  schools 
become  a  more  weighty  factor  in  the  situation. 

This  problem  of  advanced  standards  of  training  is  concerned 
not  only  with  the  organization  and  work  of  the  school,  but 
with  the  character  of  American  youth.  Art  is  a  long  road.  Not 
only  are  our  social  ideals  almost  alien  to  this  field  of  work,  but 
the  American  boy  and  girl  does  not  take  kindly  to  the  severe 
application  and  discipline  needed  for  mastering  it.  Cleverness 
and  versatility  have  been  called  the  bane  of  American  youth. 
Young  America  is  filled  with  the  faith  that  readiness  and  wit, 
however  superficial,  will  serve  to  master  any  situation.  Our 
boys  and  girls  are  continually  looking  for  a  short-cut,  and  the 
thorough  training  and  preparation  needed  for  mastery  are  not 
readily  accepted  by  them. 

Schools  and  school  practices,  admirably  developed  for 
European  conditions,  fail  to  present  entirely  competent  solu- 
tions for  our  problems,  largely  because  of  the  great  difference 
in  attitude  of  American  youth  as  contrasted  with  the  youth  of 
older  countries.  In  Europe  with  its  severe  competition  between 
individuals,  young  persons  often  beginning  at  fourteen  years 
of  age  readily  subject  themselves  to  long  periods  of  vocational 
training  in  special  schools. 

The  American  youth,  on  the  other  hand,  with  the  numerous 
opportunities  for  wage  earning  before  him,  does  not  readily 
submit  himself  to  vocational  training  beyond  the  age  of  six- 
teen unless  he  has  the  sure  guarantee  of  a  sufficient  reward. 
Both  the  economic  and  the  social  outlook  limits  the  numbers 
that  now  turn  in  this  direction.  Only  when  the  practice  of 


CONCLUSIONS  495 

industrial  art  gains  greater  recognition  as  a  field  offering 
substantial  vocational  opportunities,  will  larger  numbers  of 
superior  young  persons  be  attracted  to  it.  At  present  we 
need  a  larger  supply  of  finer  student  material  from  which  to 
produce  the  exceptional  artist. 

Production  of  all  our  artistic  goods  through  designers  of 
ordinary  capacity  without  strong  individual  talent  may  result 
in  a  fairly  satisfactory  mean  artistic  level  but  it  cannot  secure 
for  us  the  finest  artistic  creations.  High  artistic  expression  is 
essentially  an  individual  affair,  and  if  we  are  to  reach  an  art 
culture  consistent  with  the  wealth  and  variety  of  our  civiliza- 
tion there  must  evidently  be  distributed  through  the  field  of 
applied  art  exceptionally  gifted  designers  and  artists  who  can 
carry  their  achievements  to  high  levels  and  so  inspire  the 
whole  situation. 

To  nurture  such  individuals  is  perhaps  the  most  important 
office  of  the  schools  of  art.  For  this  we  need  fine  schools  officered 
by  talented  persons  where  the  ideal  of  beauty  may  be  culti- 
vated as  the  basis  of  all  endeavor,  whether  the  field  be  that  of 
the  fine  arts  or  the  applied  arts.  Out  of  such  schools,  granted 
a  high  quality  of  instructors  and  student  body,  may  readily 
come  exceptional  individuals  who  will  bring  the  element  of 
beauty  into  the  mass  production  of  our  industries.  Such  indi- 
viduals must  understand  the  ways  of  men  and  much  that  goes 
with  the  cramped  and  conditioned  physical  forces  of  pro- 
duction. 

And  here  we  are  faced  with  the  common  criticism  of  the  art 
schools  by  the  manufacturers,  that  they  are  not  practical,  that 
they  turn  out  young  people  with  theories,  who  are  without 
knowledge  of  the  requirements  of  commercial  practice.  These 
criticisms  are  at  once  just  and  unjust.  It  is  undoubtedly  a  fact 
that  few,  indeed,  of  our  art  schools  offer  instruction  to  any 
sufficient  degree  in  the  specialized  and  technical  requirements 
that  surround  all  practical  achievement  in  commercial  design. 
To  better  this  situation,  not  only  teachers  of  greater  talent 
are  needed  but  teachers  with  practical  experience  who  thor- 
oughly understand  the  technical  requirements  of  production 


496  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

and  who  can  impart  their  instruction  in  a  professional 
spirit. 

Furthermore,  there  should  be  far  closer  relations  with  the 
industries  on  the  part  of  the  schools  and  greater  effort  to  meet 
fundamental  trade  requirements.  In  this  connection,  an  ad- 
visory committee  from  the  trade  can  render  much  assistance. 
Such  a  committee  connected  with  an  art  school  is  not  an  effect- 
ive instrument  unless  the  institution  makes  it  so,  but  with 
seriousness  of  purpose  on  both  sides  cooperation  of  this  kind 
can  be  made  to  render  invaluable  service. 

On  the  other  hand,  when  all  is  said  and  done,  we  must  recog- 
nize that  there  are  many  things  the  schools  cannot  do  and 
which  it  is  not  desirable  for  them  to  attempt.  No  school  can 
develop  the  ripened  artist.  For  this  there  is  needed  actual  ex- 
perience under  practical  conditions.  The  school  can  only  pre- 
pare for  this  apprenticeship  which  is  just  as  essential  a  feature 
in  the  education  of  the  designer  as  the  instruction  of  the 
schools.  Such  an  apprenticeship  can  best  be  gained  through  an 
organization  which  brings  the  stimulus  of  emulation  and  the 
assistance  of  expert  guidance.  In  such  an  organization,  sur- 
rounded by  fellow  workers  engaged  on  the  same  problems, 
the  individual  may  mature  and  ripen.  Furthermore,  a  school 
can  impart  to  its  students  only  the  heritage  of  the  race  in 
knowledge  and  experience.  In  art  schools  this  must  be  the 
same.  Creative  work  and  the  improvement  of  standards  must 
be  accomplished  on  the  outside.  The  school  can  only  work 
toward  these  standards  as  they  are  developed  in  the  stress  of 
practical  competition. 

These  considerations  make  it  clear  that  the  full  task  of  de- 
veloping the  American  designer  will  not  be  faced  until  we 
reach  the  point  where  the  industries  are  willing  to  admit  young 
persons  from  the  art  schools  into  their  ranks  and  to  assume 
responsibility  for  guiding  and  further  developing  them. 

Commercial  establishments  and  studios  must  appreciate 
the  fact  that  art-school  students  are  young  people  with  all  the 
immaturity  and  idiosyncrasies  of  youth.  They  must  accept 
the  responsibility  of  guiding  and  developing  these  young  per- 


CONCLUSIONS  497 

sons,  with  the  knowledge  that  not  every  one  will  be  a  success 
but  that  from  such  a  policy,  earnestly  pursued,  there  will 
come  a  large  return  for  the  time  and  trouble  expended. 

Unless  the  industries  assume  this  latter  responsibility,  either 
in  their  own  establishments  or  in  high-grade  commercial  stu- 
dios, the  work  of  the  schools  cannot  hope  to  be  productive  of 
the  highest  results.  The  bridge  to  connect  the  schools  and  the 
industry  must  be  built  out  from  both  sides,  if  it  is  to  meet  in 
the  middle. 

There  is  a  further  responsibility  that  should  be  recognized 
in  this  connection  by  the  commercial  organization.  The  artis- 
tic designer  needs  encouragement  and  stimulation.  It  is  safe 
to  say  that  wherever  in  the  survey  fine  and  inspired  work  in 
design  was  found,  it  was  also  found  that  special  consideration 
was  given  the  designers  in  regard  to  their  surroundings,  in 
freedom  and  in  encouragement.  Where  commonplace  and 
mediocre  designs  were  the  rule,  the  working  conditions  were 
generally  found  to  be  those  of  the  mechanic  or  artisan. 

However  sympathetically  schools  and  industry  face  the 
problem  of  practical  cooperation,  it  is,  of  course,  too  much  to 
expect  that  we  can  achieve  any  sudden  great  advances  in 
American  industrial  art.  The  quahty  of  European  designs, 
evolved  by  workers  who  have  subjected  themselves  to  a  train- 
ing far  more  serious  than  that  generally  undertaken  by  Amer- 
ican youth,  the  artistic  atmosphere  and  traditions  of  the  old 
world  that  make  both  for  unconscious  education  and  higher 
aesthetic  standards,  the  prestige  of  European  creations,  the 
fact  that  Europe  contains  in  varied  forms  most  of  the  original 
source  material  relied  upon  so  largely  by  designers — all  in- 
dicate that  American  progress  towards  self-sufficiency  in  this 
field  can  be  but  gradual  and  can  be  achieved  only  by  vigorous 
and  concerted  effort. 

This  is  the  side  that  must  be  kept  in  mind  to  guard  against 
illusion.  On  the  other  hand,  if  increasing  and  many-sided 
effort  can  be  brought  to  bear  and  a  larger  degree  of  cooperation 
developed,  we  can  confidently  expect  steady  advancement. 
We  can  be  confident  that  agencies  are  operating  and  are  mul- 


498  ART  IN  INDUSTRY 

tiplying  that  may  be  relied  on  to  advance  our  standards  of 
public  taste,  that  the  wealth  of  the  country  and  pride  in  our 
homes  are  creating  a  growing  insistence  for  finer  things  and 
that  these  forces  can  be  counted  on  to  exert  increasing  pres- 
sure upon  manufacturers  to  meet  the  rising  level  of  demand 
and  seek  greater  beauty  in  their  products. 

If  this  demand  is  to  be  met  the  worth  of  creative  design 
must  receive  greater  financial  recognition.  Fine  artistic  re- 
sults can  be  attained  only  through  fine  artistic  talent  which 
must  be  paid  for  and  high  achievements  will  be  possible  only 
when  the  creative  personahty  in  a  producing  organization, 
whether  this  be  styler  or  designer,  is  selected  with  as  much 
care  as  the  executive  officers  and  accorded  similar  economic 
status. 

Another  need  which  should  be  met  is  active  cooperation 
between  manufacturers,  schools,  museums  and  other  agencies 
in  the  field.  If  the  manufacturers  in  certain  industries  can  be 
brought  to  the  point  of  acting  through  their  trade  associations 
upon  measures  calculated  to  develop  the  special  training 
needed  to  meet  their  problems  and  to  develop  working  rela- 
tions with  the  various  organizations  in  the  field  we  can  hope 
to  go  forward  much  more  rapidly. 

We  must  realize  there  is  no  one  solution  to  the  problem.  The 
situation  is  far  too  complex.  We  need  to  move  ahead  on  many 
different  fines  in  order  that  standards  of  both  demand  and 
supply  may  be  continuously  advancing. 

To  effect  this  the  operation  of  many  different  forces  is 
requisite.  These  forces  will  not  all  be  exerted  to  the  full  until 
economic  advantage  is  more  clearly  brought  home,  but  the 
present  is  surely  a  peculiarly  appropriate  time  to  push  for- 
ward. We  have  seen  the  vision  in  the  past  few  years  and  know 
something  of  the  road. 

If  our  efforts  are  to  carry  us  far  it  is  clear  they  must  com- 
prehend both  the  ideal  and  the  material.  Museums,  schools, 
merchants,  manufacturers  and  writers  must  not  only  lend 
their  efforts  to  further  all  practical  measures  that  will  ad- 
vance our  standards,  but  they  must  as  earnestly  unite  to 


CONCLUSIONS  499 

bring  our  people  to  the  recognition  that  the  development 
of  our  industrial  arts  is  a  spiritual  as  well  as  an  economic 
consummation  essential  for  the  country's  welfare.  When  once 
the  idea  reaches  our  consciousness  as  a  people  that  a  finer 
quality  of  art  in  American  life  constitutes  for  us  a  national 
need,  we  may  hope  for  steady  and  continuous  advance  that 
will  bring  us  in  time  to  an  art  worthy  of  the  ideals  of  Ameri- 
can democracy. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 

Santa  Barbara  College  Library 
Santa  Barbara,  California 


366 

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LD  21-10m-5.'50 
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■'li 


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R5 
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Richards 
Art,  in 
industry 


